Measuring the SDGs in Refugee Camps: An Insight into Arab States Bordering Syria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Methodology
3.1. Approach
- Basic ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions;
- Predetermined multiple choice questions;
- Value statements with choices from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’;
- Optional text, allowing further responses instead of predetermined answers.
3.2. Data Analysis
3.3. Ethical Standards and Data Management
3.4. Aggregation of SDGs Index
4. Three Bordering Host Countries: Different Refugee Camps
4.1. Iraq
4.2. Jordan
4.3. Lebanon
5. Results
5.1. Goal 1: ‘End Poverty in All Its Forms Everywhere’ [47]
5.2. Goal 2: ‘End Hunger, Achieve Food Security and Improved Nutrition and Promote Sustainable Agriculture’ [47]
5.3. Goal 3: ‘Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being for All at All Ages’ [47]
5.4. Goal 4: ‘Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All’ [47]
5.5. Goal 6: ‘Ensure Availability and Sustainable Management of Water and Sanitation for All’ [47]
5.6. Goal 7: ‘Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable, Sustainable and Modern Energy for All’ [47]
5.7. Goal 8: ‘Promote Sustained, Inclusive and Sustainable Economic Growth, Full and Productive Employment and Decent Work for All’ [47]
5.8. Goal 11: ‘Make Cities and Human Settlements Inclusive, Safe, Resilient and Sustainable’ [47]
5.9. Other Goals: Goal 5, Goal 10, Goal 16, and Goal 17
5.10. The Three Dimentions of Sustainability
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
- Due to the travel limitations at the time of carrying out this study, the authors were not able to travel and conduct face-to-face questionnaires, interviews, or observations of the status quo;
- Sensitivity of results: not all the indicators from the full SDG list were segregated or included, which results in having scores that might be higher/lower than if the full list was included. This affects the final score, especially when the number of studied indicators is relatively low. Additionally, sensitivity analyses are needed to give guidance regarding the most valuable indicators that would accelerate the achievement of the 2030 agenda;
- Even though the arithmetic mean method has credible advantages of unifying the performance of each SDG, it has some limitations including sensitivity to extreme values, and using equal wights may result in a skewness toward a specific SDG [80]. Moreover, PCA has a limitation related to assuming a linear relation between variables, which make the components less interpretable than the original [81]. Other methods are encouraged to be explored in further research, including data envelopment analysis (DEA) [82] and integrated PCA and DEA [83]
- Identifying the social, economic, and environmental sustainability indicators and SDGs is still not well defined in the literature, and requires further research and may reflect in different rankings when considering different approach;
- The captured information is based primarily on data from individuals’ responses from specific locations. It does not statistically represent the views of the entire refugee population, nor do they cover all countries. However, most of the issues raised throughout this study are indicative of the general targets linked to SDGs and the challenges and gaps that refugees in Syria’s bordering countries face.
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
SDG | Target | Indicator |
---|---|---|
SDG1: ‘End poverty in all its forms everywhere’ | 1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than USD 1.90 a day | 1.1.1 Proportion of the population living below the international poverty line by sex, age, employment status and geographic location (urban/rural) |
1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions | 1.2.1 Proportion of population living below the national poverty line, by sex and age | |
1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services | 1.4.1 Proportion of population living in households with access to basic services | |
SDG2: ‘End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture’ | 2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round | 2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment |
2.1.2 Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) | ||
2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and | 2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting among children under 5 years of age | |
2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition among children under 5 years of age, by type (wasting and overweight). | ||
SDG3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all age | 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases | 3.3.1 Number of new HIV infections per 1000 uninfected population, by sex, age and key populations |
3.3.2 Tuberculosis incidence per 100,000 population | ||
3.3.3 Malaria incidence per 1000 population | ||
3.3.4 Hepatitis B incidence per 100,000 population | ||
3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all | 3.8.1 Coverage of essential health services | |
Goal4: ‘Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’ | 4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes | 4.1.2 Completion rate (primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education) |
4.2 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education | 4.2.2 Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary entry age), by sex | |
4.3 By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university | 4.3.1 Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, by sex | |
4.6 By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy | 4.6.1 Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex | |
4.a Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all | 4.a.1 Proportion of schools offering basic services, by type of service | |
Goal5: ‘Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls’ | 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation | 5.2.2 Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence |
5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation | 5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before age 18 | |
5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communication technology, to promote the empowerment of women | 5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex | |
Goal6: ‘Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’ | 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all | 6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services |
6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations | 6.2.1 Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water | |
Goal7: ‘Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all’ | 7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services | 7.1.1 Proportion of population with access to electricity |
7.1.2 Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology | ||
Goal8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all | 8.5 By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value | 8.5.2 Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities |
8.7 Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labor, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labor in all its forms | 8.7.1 Proportion and number of children aged 5–17 years engaged in child labor, by sex and age | |
Goal10: Reduce inequality within and among countries | 10.3 Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation, policies and action in this regard | 10.3.1 Proportion of population reporting having personally felt discriminated against or harassed in the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination prohibited under international human rights law |
10.7 Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies | 10.7.4 Proportion of the population who are refugees, by country of origin | |
Goal11: ‘make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ | 11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums | 11.1.1 Proportion of urban population living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate housing |
11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and older persons. 16.1 Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere | 11.2.1 Proportion of population that has convenient access to public transport, by sex, age and persons with disabilities | |
Goal16: ‘Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels’ | 16.1.3 Proportion of population subjected to (a) physical violence, (b) psychological violence and (c) sexual violence in the previous 12 months | |
16.1.4 Proportion of population that feel safe walking alone around the area they live | ||
Goal17: ‘Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development’ | 17.8 Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology | 17.8.1 Proportion of individuals using the Internet |
Iraq | Jordan | Lebanon | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average Score for each SDG | GOAL1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere | 65.6 | 43.5 | 37.2 | 48.8 |
GOAL2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture | 76.7 | 83.6 | 50.9 | 70.4 | |
GOAL3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages | 51.4 | 53.5 | 49.0 | 51.3 | |
GOAL4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all | 87.9 | 57.8 | 20.8 | 55.5 | |
GOAL5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls | 87.9 | 81.0 | 78.1 | 82.3 | |
GOAL6 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all | 80.8 | 85.7 | 68.2 | 78.2 | |
GOAL7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all | 92.1 | 98.2 | 100.0 | 96.8 | |
GOAL8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all | 63.9 | 66.5 | 63.9 | 64.8 | |
GOAL10 Reduce inequality within and among countries | 32.6 | 20.7 | 47.8 | 33.7 | |
GOAL11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable | 66.7 | 49.6 | 52.1 | 56.1 | |
GOAL16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels | 57.3 | 62.8 | 45.9 | 55.3 | |
GOAL17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development | 67.4 | 50.0 | 30.4 | 49.3 | |
Average | 69.2 | 62.7 | 53.7 | 61.9 |
SDG | SDG1 | SDG2 | SDG3 | SDG4 | SDG5 | SDG6 | SDG7 | SDG8 | SDG10 | SDG11 | SDG16 | SDG17 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Iraq | 46.84 | 53.73 | 55.78 | 29.95 | 43.48 | 44.53 | 45.68 | 42.41 | 52.89 | 59.66 | 51.52 | 56.86 |
Jordan | 38.61 | 53.68 | 47.39 | 39.84 | 55.83 | 54.00 | 50.00 | 50.47 | 43.85 | 31.90 | 44.18 | 48.25 |
Lebanon | 35.29 | 29.05 | 46.46.5 | 13.13 | 46.73 | 33.52 | 50.00 | 46.64 | 48.48 | 54.28 | 38.50 | 38.57 |
p-Value | 0.139 | 0.001 ** | 0.167 | 0.001 ** | 0.136 | 0.009 ** | 0.091 | 0.396 | 0.157 | 0.001 ** | 0.121 | 0.014 * |
Appendix B
Related Question/Indicator | Iraq | Jordan | Lebanon | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Female | 50.00% | 64.5% | 50.00% | 54.20% |
Male | 50.00% | 35.50% | 50.00% | 44.80% | |
Prefer not to say | 00.00% | 03.10% | 00.00% | 01.00% | |
Marital status | Married | 46.30% | 59.40% | 76.20% | 57.40% |
Single | 43.90% | 34.40% | 19.00% | 35.10% | |
Other | 09.80% | 06.30% | 04.80% | 07.40% | |
Daily income per person per day | Less than USD 1 | 25.00% | 20.70% | 23.80% | 23.20% |
Between USD (1–2) | 12.50% | 34.50% | 38.10% | 26.80% | |
Between USD (2–3) | 6.20% | 3.40% | 14.3 | 7.30% | |
Between USD (3–5) | 15.40% | 17.30% | 9.50% | 14.70% | |
Between USD (5–10) | 31.30% | 13.80% | 9.50% | 19.50% | |
More than USD 10 | 9.40% | 6.90% | 4.80% | 7.30% | |
Other | 0.00% | 3.40% | 0.00% | 1.20% | |
Access to basic services | No access | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
Access to some services | 65.20% | 84.40% | 78.30% | 74.30% | |
Access to all services | 34.80% | 15.60% | 21.70% | 25.70% | |
Undernourishment | No | 65.90% | 71.00% | 17.40% | 56.10% |
Yes | 18.20% | 16.10% | 60.90% | 27.60% | |
Maybe | 15.90% | 12.90% | 21.70% | 16.30% | |
Household malnutrition, stunting, and wasting | No | 73.30% | 83.90% | 63.60% | 74.50% |
Yes | 26.70% | 12.90% | 36.40% | 24.50% | |
Other | 0.00% | 3.20% | 0.00% | 1.00% | |
Access to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round | Valid | 44 | 31 | 23 | |
Missing | 2 | 1 | 0 | ||
Mean | 4.07 | 4.1 | 3.09 | ||
Median | 4 | 4 | 3 | ||
Mode | 4 | 3 | 3 | ||
Range | 6 | 6 | 5 | ||
Minimum | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
Maximum | 7 | 7 | 6 | ||
Food insecurity for Syrian refugees and their host countries | Syrian refugee/Camp level | 32.9% 1 | 21% 2 | 50% 3 | 1 (The World Bank, FAO, IFAD, and WFP, 2021), 2 (The World Bank, FAO, IFAD, and WFP, 2020), 3 (WFP, 2021) |
National/Host level | 4.7% 1 | 3% 2 | 34% 3 | ||
IDP | 17.5% 1 | ||||
Access to essential health services | No | 15.20% | 10.30% | 17.40% | 14.30% |
At least one service | 80.40% | 79.30% | 82.60% | 80.60% | |
Yes, All services | 4.30% | 10.30% | 0.00% | 5.10% | |
Completion of primary and secondary education | No | 28.60% | 10.00% | 85.00% | 39.70% |
Yes | 67.90% | 90.00% | 10.00% | 57.40% | |
Other | 3.60% | 0.00% | 5.00% | 2.90% | |
Access to early childhood development and pre-primary education that prepare them for primary education | No | 20.00% | 23.10% | 83.30% | 42.90% |
Yes | 80.00% | 76.90% | 16.70% | 57.10% | |
Access to affordable and quality technical, vocational or tertiary education, including university | No | 50.00% | 46.90% | 80.00% | 56.00% |
Yes | 50.00% | 37.50% | 20.00% | 38.10% | |
Other | 0.00% | 15.60% | 0.00% | 6.00% | |
Household members are not able to read or do basic mathematical calculations | No | 83.70% | 78.10% | 57.10% | 76.00% |
Yes | 16.30% | 15.60% | 42.90% | 21.90% | |
Other | 0.00% | 6.30% | 0.00% | 2.10% | |
Access to basic services in schools | No | 15.20% | 9.70% | 30.40% | 17.00% |
Yes | 8.70% | 6.50% | 0.00% | 6.00% | |
Partial | 76.10% | 83.90% | 69.60% | 77.00% | |
Access to safe and affordable drinking water | No | 9.10% | 22.60% | 40.90% | 20.60% |
Yes | 90.90% | 77.40% | 59.10% | 79.40% | |
Access to washing hand facility with soap and water | No | 2.40% | 6.70% | 0.00% | 5.30% |
Yes | 97.60% | 93.30% | 100.00% | 94.70% | |
Access to adequate and appropriate sanitation services | No | 46.10% | 13.30% | 54.50% | 37.40% |
Yes | 53.90% | 86.70% | 45.50% | 62.60% | |
Access to electricity | No | 6.80% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 5.20% |
Yes | 93.20% | 100.00% | 100.00% | 94.80% | |
Energy used for cooking requirement by type and country | Charcoal | 2.30% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 1.00% |
Electricity | 0.00% | 3.30% | 0.00% | 1.00% | |
Fuel wood | 4.50% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 2.10% | |
Fuel | 2.30% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 1.00% | |
Gas | 90.90% | 93.30% | 100.00% | 93.80% | |
Other | 0.00% | 3.30% | 0.00% | 1.00% | |
How energy requirements for cooking are obtained | Humanitarian assistance | 19.60% | 46.70% | 13.00% | 26.30% |
Picked from nearby forest locations | 4.30% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 2.00% | |
Picked from distant forest locations | 2.20% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 1.00% | |
Purchase/Paid yourself | 80.40% | 76.70% | 78.30% | 78.80% | |
Exchange food shares for energy source | 4.30% | 6.70% | 0.00% | 4.00% | |
Unemployment rate | Self-employed | 9.10% | 3.10% | 4.20% | 6% |
Employee in the host country government | 6.80% | 3.10% | 0% | 4% | |
Employee in private company | 11.40% | 6.30% | 8.30% | 9% | |
Employee with international humanitarian organization | 11.40% | 28.10% | 4.20% | 15% | |
Agriculture | 2.30% | 6.30% | 4.20% | 4% | |
Housekeeper | 18.20% | 18.80% | 33.30% | 22% | |
Working without official work permit | 6.80% | 0% | 20.80% | 8% | |
I do not have work | 34.10% | 34.40% | 20.80% | 31% | |
Other | 0% | 0% | 4.20% | 1% | |
Child Labor | No | 80.00% | 86.20% | 81.80% | 82.40% |
Yes | 20.00% | 13.80% | 18.20% | 17.60% | |
Type of shelters | A building which is part of residential compound | 9.10% | 3.10% | 4.50% | 6.10% |
Caravans | 6.80% | 90.60% | 0.00% | 32.70% | |
Cement building with zinc/iron sheets roof | 20.50% | 0.00% | 4.50% | 10.20% | |
Combined both caravans and tents | 0.00% | 3.10% | 0.00% | 1.00% | |
Interlocking stabilized soil blocks | 2.30% | 0.00% | 9.10% | 3.10% | |
Room made of stone, block, or brick with zinc or iron sheets roof | 4.50% | 0.00% | 4.50% | 3.10% | |
Tent | 54.50% | 3.10% | 77.30% | 42.90% | |
Transitional structures made of wooden poles, and iron sheets roof or polythene | 2.30% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 1.00% | |
Access to public transport systems | No | 23.90% | 77.40% | 34.80% | 43.00% |
Yes | 76.10% | 22.60% | 65.20% | 57.00% | |
Women faced any physical, sexual, or psychological violence | No | 80.00% | 80.00% | 70.00% | 78.00% |
Yes | 20.00% | 20.00% | 30.00% | 22.00% | |
Faced any physical, sexual, or psychological violence | No | 86.40% | 68.70% | 77.30% | 78.60% |
Yes | 13.60% | 31.30% | 22.70% | 21.40% | |
Faced discrimination or harassment | No | 32.60% | 20.70% | 47.80% | 32.70% |
Yes | 67.40% | 79.30% | 52.20% | 0.673 | |
Child marriage | Under 15 years old | 2.20% | 3.10% | 0.00% | 2.00% |
Under 18 years old | 10.90% | 3.10% | 17.40% | 9.90% | |
18 years old and above | 26.10% | 53.10% | 47.80% | 39.60% | |
Not married | 60.90% | 40.60% | 34.80% | 48.50% | |
Feel secure/safe in the streets of the camp | Valid | 38 | 31 | 19 | |
Missing | 8 | 1 | 4 | ||
Mean | 2.58 * | 4.26 * | 1.32 * | ||
Median | 2 | 4 | 1 | ||
Std. Deviation | 1.464 | 1.932 | 0.582 | ||
Range | 5 | 6 | 2 | ||
Minimum | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
Maximum | 6 | 7 | 3 | ||
Access to mobile phone | No | 0.00% | 0.00% | 5.00% | 1.70% |
Yes | 100% | 100% | 95% | 98.30% | |
Access to Internet | No | 32.60% | 50.00% | 69.60% | 46.50% |
Yes | 67.40% | 50.00% | 30.40% | 53.50% |
Year of Survey | Iraq—Domiz Camp | Jordan—Alzaatari Camp | Lebanon—Beqaa | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wasting % (95% CI) | 2015–2016 | 9.5% 1 | 4.1% 1 | 2.4% 1 |
2013 | 4.1% 2 | 1.2% 2 | 4.4% 2 | |
Stunting % (95% CI) | 2015–2016 | 7.4% 1 | 7.4% 1 | 9.6% 1 |
2013 | 19.0% 2 | 16.7% 2 | 21.0% 2 | |
Overweight and Obesity | 2015–2016 | 6.1% 1 | 11.9% 1 | 11.9% 1 |
2016 | - | 1.6% 3 | - |
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Social | Environmental | Economic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arithmetic Mean | Kruskal–Wallis | Arithmetic Mean | Kruskal–Wallis | Economic | Kruskal–Wallis | |
Iraq | 66.63 | 28.00 | 86.45 | 42.92 | 64.40 | 43.85 |
Jordan | 53.65 | 23.94 | 91.95 | 54.21 | 61.78 | 39.37 |
Lebanon | 45.85 | 21.69 | 84.10 | 34.36 | 50.25 | 35.12 |
Total | 55.38 | p-Value 0.435 | 87.50 | p-Value 0.010 * | 58.81 | p-Value 0.393 |
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Wardeh, M.; Marques, R.C. Measuring the SDGs in Refugee Camps: An Insight into Arab States Bordering Syria. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1720. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021720
Wardeh M, Marques RC. Measuring the SDGs in Refugee Camps: An Insight into Arab States Bordering Syria. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1720. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021720
Chicago/Turabian StyleWardeh, Mai, and Rui Cunha Marques. 2023. "Measuring the SDGs in Refugee Camps: An Insight into Arab States Bordering Syria" Sustainability 15, no. 2: 1720. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021720
APA StyleWardeh, M., & Marques, R. C. (2023). Measuring the SDGs in Refugee Camps: An Insight into Arab States Bordering Syria. Sustainability, 15(2), 1720. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021720