Transforming Saudi Arabia’s Energy Landscape towards a Sustainable Future: Progress of Solar Photovoltaic Energy Deployment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. An Overview of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s Demographics
3. Saudi Arabia’s Electricity Sector Revolution
3.1. Phase 1 (the Early 1960s)
3.2. Phase 2 (after the 1960s)
3.3. Phase 3 (Modern Edge—Renewable Energy Power Generation)
4. Saudi Arabia’s Current Electricity Status
4.1. Large-Scale Solar Projects in Saudi Arabia
4.1.1. Sakaka Solar PV Project
- The Sakaka solar PV project has a 25-year power purchase agreement (PPA) with the Saudi Power Procurement Company (SPPC). The PPA includes a tariff rate of 0.08872 SAR/kWh (USD 0.024/kWh), which is one of the lowest solar tariff rates in the world. The low tariff rate was achieved due to the competitive bidding process used by the REPDO, which attracted bids from several international companies.
- The Sakaka solar PV project was built with the aim of reducing Saudi Arabia’s dependence on oil and gas for electricity generation and diversifying the country’s energy mix. The project is expected to produce around 680 GWh of electricity annually, which is enough to power around 75,000 homes.
4.1.2. Sudair Solar PV Project
- The Sudair solar PV project has a 25-year power purchase agreement (PPA) with the SPPC, with a tariff rate of 0.060 SAR/kWh (USD 0.016/kWh). This is one of the lowest tariff rates for solar energy in the world and was achieved through a competitive bidding process.
- The project is part of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 plan, which aims to diversify the country’s economy and reduce its dependence on oil by increasing the share of renewable energy in its energy mix. The Sudair solar PV project is expected to generate around 2.9 TWh of electricity annually, which is equivalent to the energy needs of around 185,000 households in Saudi Arabia.
4.1.3. Policy and Regulatory Support for Large-Scale Solar PV System
- Power Purchase Agreement: Both Sakaka and Sudair solar PV projects have a 25-year power purchase agreement (PPA) with the Saudi Power Procurement Company (SPPC). The PPA guarantees a fixed price for the electricity generated by the project, which provides a stable revenue stream for the project developer and reduces the risk associated with investing in renewable energy.
- Regulatory Framework: The Saudi government has developed a regulatory framework to support the development and integration of renewable energy into the country’s energy mix. This framework includes regulations for interconnection, grid access, and renewable energy certificates, which help to facilitate the integration of renewable energy into the grid.
- Incentives: The Saudi government offers incentives for companies that invest in renewable energy, including tax exemptions and reduced fees for land use and permits. These incentives help to reduce the cost of developing renewable energy projects and encourage more companies to invest in the sector.
4.2. Solar Energy Data Collection in Saudi Arabia—A Historical Brief
5. Renewable Energy Policies in Saudi Arabia
- Net Metering: In 2018, the Saudi Electricity Company (SEC) implemented net metering, a policy that incentivizes homeowners to install rooftop solar PV systems by allowing them to sell any excess electricity back to the grid for credit. Residential off-takers are offered a rate of 7 halalas/kWh for any surplus electricity they export, while all non-residential off-takers (such as commercial, industrial, agricultural, and governmental entities) are offered a rate of 5 halalas/kWh for their surplus electricity exports to the utility grid. This policy is beneficial in reducing electricity bills for homeowners and promoting the adoption of solar PV systems in the country [48,49].
- Soft loans: The Saudi Industrial Development Fund (SIDF) provides soft loans to individuals and companies for the purchase and installation of distributed power generation systems (rooftop solar PV systems). These loans have low interest rates and flexible repayment terms, making it easier for homeowners and businesses to invest in renewable energy [50].
- To maintain stable frequency and voltage in the power system during disturbances, certain criteria are mandated by the standard;
- Specific criteria for the start, operation, and stoppage of small-scale solar PV systems are mandated by the standard;
- In order to avoid any disruptions or harm to the distribution network and other connected customers, specific requirements are in place for small-scale solar PV systems;
- The standard requires certain prerequisites to prevent small-scale solar PV systems from operating with any section of the distribution network that has intentionally been disconnected from the primary power system.
6. Observations
7. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Hossain, M.S.; Madlool, N.A.; Al-Fatlawi, A.W.; El Haj Assad, M. High Penetration of Solar Photovoltaic Structure on the Grid System Disruption: An Overview of Technology Advancement. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ali, A.; Li, W.; Hussain, R.; He, X.; Williams, B.W.; Memon, A.H. Overview of current microgrid policies, incentives and barriers in the European Union, United States and China. Sustainability 2017, 9, 1146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Opstal, W.; Smeets, A. Circular economy strategies as enablers for solar PV adoption in organizational market segments. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2023, 35, 40–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International Renewable Energy Agency. Global Renewables Outlook. 2020. Available online: https://www.irena.org (accessed on 10 January 2023).
- Ali, A.; Malik, S. Solar Photovoltaic End-of-Life Disposal Policy Assessment for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In Proceedings of the 44th IAEE Conference on Pathe Way to a Clean, Stable and Sustainable Energy Future, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 4–9 February 2023; pp. 197–198. [Google Scholar]
- Ali, A.; Al-Sulaiman, F.A.; Al-Duais, I.N.A.; Irshad, K.; Malik, M.Z.; Shafiullah, M.; Zahir, M.H.; Ali, H.M.; Malik, S.A. Renewable Portfolio Standard Development Assessment in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia from the Perspective of Policy Networks Theory. Processes 2021, 9, 1123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ali, A.; Alsulaiman, F.A.; Irshad, K.; Shafiullah, M.; Malik, S.A.; Memon, A.H. Renewable Portfolio Standard from the Perspective of Policy Network Theory for Saudi Arabia Vision 2030 Targets. In Proceedings of the 2021 4th International Conference on Energy Conservation and Efficiency (ICECE), UET Lahore, Pakistan, 16–17 March 2021; pp. 1–5. [Google Scholar]
- Yusuf, N.; Lytras, M.D. Competitive Sustainability of Saudi Companies through Digitalization and the Circular Carbon Economy Model: A Bold Contribution to the Vision 2030 Agenda in Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Ismail, F.S.; Alam, M.S.; Shafiullah, M.; Hossain, M.I.; Rahman, S.M. Impacts of Renewable Energy Generation on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Saudi Arabia: A Comprehensive Review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 5069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hassan, Q.; Al-Hitmi, M.; Tabar, V.S.; Sameen, A.Z.; Salman, H.M.; Jaszczur, M. Middle East energy consumption and potential renewable sources: An overview. Clean. Eng. Technol. 2023, 12, 100599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saidi, A.S.; Alsharari, F.; Ahmed, E.M.; Al-Gahtani, S.F.; Irshad, S.M.; Alalwani, S. Investigating the Impact of Grid-Tied Photovoltaic System in the Aljouf Region, Saudi Arabia, Using Dynamic Reactive Power Control. Energies 2023, 16, 2368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, S.U.; Wazeer, I.; Almutairi, Z. Comparative Analysis of SAM and RETScreen Tools for the Case Study of 600 kW Solar PV System Installation in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 2023, 15, 5381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.I.; Al-Ghamdi, S.G. Hydrogen economy for sustainable development in GCC countries: A SWOT analysis considering current situation, challenges, and prospects. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2023, 48, 10315–10344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Sinan, M.A.; Bubshait, A.A.; Alamri, F. Saudi Arabia’s Journey toward Net-Zero Emissions: Progress and Challenges. Energies 2023, 16, 978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mansouri, N.Y.; Crookes, R.J.; Korakianitis, T. A projection of energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions in the electricity sector for Saudi Arabia: The case for carbon capture and storage and solar photovoltaics. Energy Policy 2013, 63, 681–695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Population Review. Total Population by Country 2019. Available online: https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries (accessed on 12 January 2023).
- General Authority of Statistics KSA. Population Nationality (Saudi/Non-Saudi). 2018. Available online: https://www.stats.gov.sa/en/indicators/10 (accessed on 12 January 2023).
- Muzayanah, I.F.U.; Lean, H.H.; Hartono, D.; Indraswari, K.D.; Partama, R. Population density and energy consumption: A study in Indonesian provinces. Heliyon 2022, 8, e10634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Y.; Liu, J.; Lin, Y.; Li, Q. The impact of urbanization on China’s residential energy consumption. Struct. Chang. Econ. Dyn. 2019, 49, 170–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nepal, R.; Paija, N. Energy security, electricity, population and economic growth: The case of a developing South Asian resource-rich economy. Energy Policy 2019, 132, 771–781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fahmy, M.S.; Ahmed, F.; Durani, F.; Bojnec, Š.; Ghareeb, M.M. Predicting Electricity Consumption in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Energies 2023, 16, 506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ayad, H.; Sari-Hassoun, S.E.; Usman, M.; Ahmad, P. The impact of economic uncertainty, economic growth and energy consumption on environmental degradation in MENA countries: Fresh insights from multiple thresholds NARDL approach. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2023, 30, 1806–1824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hargreaves, S. Saudi Arabia Poised to Become Solar Powerhouse. CNN Money 2011. Available online: https://money.cnn.com/2011/11/21/news/international/saudi_arabia_solar/index.htm (accessed on 13 January 2023).
- Ouda, M.; El-Nakla, S.; Yahya, C.B.; Ouda, K.M.O. Electricity Demand Forecast in Saudi Arabia. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 7th Palestinian International Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (PICECE), Gaza, Palestine, 26–27 March 2019; pp. 1–5. [Google Scholar]
- Electric & Cogeneration Regulatory Authority (ECRA). Annual Statistical Booklet for Electricty and Seawater Desalination Industries. 2017. Available online: https://wera.gov.sa/en/MediaCenter/Publications/StatisticalBooklets/Pages/default.aspx (accessed on 20 January 2023).
- AlNemer, H.A.; Hkiri, B.; Tissaoui, K. Dynamic impact of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on CO2 emission and economic growth in Saudi Arabia: Fresh evidence from wavelet coherence analysis. Renew. Energy 2023, 209, 340–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shumkov, I. Saudi Auction for 400 MW of Wind Attracts 4 Bids. Renewablesnow. 2018. Available online: https://renewablesnow.com (accessed on 22 January 2023).
- Renewable Energy Project Development Office (REPDO). Solar Pwer Plant Tedner. 2019. Available online: https://www.powersaudiarabia.com.sa (accessed on 22 January 2023).
- Al-Sarihi, A.; Mansouri, N.; Al-Otaibi, S. GCC Renewable Energy Development Amid COVID-19 Pandemic BT—GCC Hydrocarbon Economies and COVID: Old Trends, New Realities; Kozhanov, N., Young, K., Qanas, J., Eds.; Springer Nature: Singapore, 2023; pp. 57–89. [Google Scholar]
- Alharthi, Y.Z. Performance Analysis Using Multi-Year Parameters for a Grid-Connected Wind Power System. Energies 2023, 16, 2242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al Garni, H.Z. The Impact of Soiling on PV Module Performance in Saudi Arabia. Energies 2022, 15, 8033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Saidi, M. Energy transition in Saudi Arabia: Giant leap or necessary adjustment for a large carbon economy? Energy Rep. 2022, 8, 312–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Razi, F.; Dincer, I. Renewable energy development and hydrogen economy in MENA region: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 168, 112763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farag, M.M.; Bansal, R.C. Solar energy development in the GCC region—A review on recent progress and opportunities. Int. J. Model. Simul. 2022, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hepbasli, A.; Alsuhaibani, Z. A key review on present status and future directions of solar energy studies and applications in Saudi Arabia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2011, 15, 5021–5050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sakr, I. Solar Energy Applications in the Arab World. In Proceedings of the International Seminar on Appropriate Technology in the Fields of Solar and Wind Energy Applications, Amman, Jordan, 4 August–2 September 1987; pp. 75–94. [Google Scholar]
- Alawaji, S.H. Evaluation of solar energy research and its applications in Saudi Arabia—20 years of experience. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2001, 5, 59–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salam, M.A.; Khan, S.A. Transition towards sustainable energy production—A review of the progress for solar energy in Saudi Arabia. Energy Explor. Exploit. 2017, 36, 3–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mian, S.H.; Moiduddin, K.; Alkhalefah, H.; Abidi, M.H.; Ahmed, F.; Hashmi, F.H. Mechanisms for Choosing PV Locations that Allow for the Most Sustainable Usage of Solar Energy. Sustainability 2023, 15, 3284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- E. R. I. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “Solar Radiation Atlas ‘Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’”, Riyadh. 1998. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/31546.pdf (accessed on 1 February 2023).
- King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy. Renewable Resource Atlas. 2019. Available online: https://www.energy.gov.sa/en/FutureEnergy/RenewableEnergy/pages/renew2.aspx (accessed on 1 February 2023).
- Awan, A.B.; Zubair, M.; Praveen, R.P.; Abokhalil, A.G. Solar Energy Resource Analysis and Evaluation of Photovoltaic System Performance in Various Regions of Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aldhubaib, H.A. Electrical energy future of Saudi Arabia: Challenges and opportunities. Front. Energy Res. 2022, 10, 1005081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alnatheer, O. The potential contribution of renewable energy to electricity supply in Saudi Arabia. Energy Policy 2005, 33, 2298–2312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akinpelu, A.; Alam, M.S.; Shafiullah, M.; Rahman, S.M.; Al-Ismail, F.S. Greenhouse Gas Emission Dynamics of Saudi Arabia: Potential of Hydrogen Fuel for Emission Footprint Reduction. Sustainability 2023, 15, 5639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IRENA; IEA; REN21. Renewable Energy Policies in a Time of Transition. 2018. Available online: https://www.irena.org/publications/2018/Apr/Renewable-energy-policies-in-a-time-of-transition (accessed on 2 February 2023).
- ECRA. The Development of National Renewable Energy Policy for Saudi Arabia, 2009. Available online: https://wera.gov.sa/en/LawsAndRegulations/LawsAndRegulations/Pages/default.aspx (accessed on 2 February 2023).
- Alsantali, M.H.; Almarshoud, A.F. The economic feasibility of utilizing small-scale solar PV systems in the residential sector based on Saudi regulations. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 2023, 25, 889–907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alharbi, S.J.; Alaboodi, A.S. A Review on Techno-Economic Study for Supporting Building with PV-Grid-Connected Systems under Saudi Regulations. Energies 2023, 16, 1531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saudi Industrial Development Fund (SIDF). 2023. Available online: https://www.sidf.gov.sa/en/Pages/Home.aspx (accessed on 5 February 2023).
- ECRA. Small-Scale Solar PV Systems Regulations. 2017. Available online: https://wera.gov.sa/en/LawsAndRegulations/RulesAndFrameworks/Documents/Regulatory%20Framework%20for%20Small-Scale%20Solar%20PV%20Systems.pdf (accessed on 10 February 2023).
- Salem, N.; Asiri, J. Design and Performance Analysis of a Grid-Connected Solar Power System for Energy Efficient AR Building. In Proceedings of the 2023 1st International Conference on Advanced Innovations in Smart Cities (ICAISC), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 23–25 January 2023; pp. 1–6. [Google Scholar]
- SEC. Technical Standards for the Connection of Small-Scale Solar PV Systems to the LV and MV Distribution Networks of SEC; SEC: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Water & Electricity Regulatory Authority (WERA). Small-Scale Solar PV Systems Regulations. Saudi Arabia. Available online: https://wera.gov.sa/en/LawsAndRegulations/RulesAndFrameworks/Pages/p7.aspx (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Water & Electricity Regulatory Authority (WERA). The Electricity Law. Saudi Arabia. Available online: https://www.moenergy.gov.sa/en/DigitalDocuments/Regulations/Documents/ElectrictyLaw.pdf (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Saudi Electricity Company (SEC). The Saudi Arabian Distribution Code. Saudi Arabia. Available online: https://www.se.com.sa/ar-sa/Document%20Library/Saudi%20Arabian%20Distribution%20Code.pdf (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Saudi Electricity Company (SEC). Saudi Arabian Grid Code. Saudi Arabia. Available online: https://www.se.com.sa/en-us/Lists/SaudiArabianGridCode/Attachments/1/SaudiArabianGridCode.pdf (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Saudi Building Code National Committee (SBCNC). The Saudi Building Code Electrical Requirements. Saudi Arabia. Available online: https://fkec.com.sa/website/uploads/Electrical_Requirements.pdf (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Design Qualification and Type Approval—Part 1: Test Requirements (IEC-61215). 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/61345 (accessed on 15 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Design Qualification and Type Approval—Part 1-1: Special Requirements for Testing of Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic (PV) Modules. 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/61346 (accessed on 15 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Design Qualification and Type Approval—Part 1-2: Special Requirements for Testing of Thin-Film Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Based Photovoltaic (PV) Modules. 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/61347 (accessed on 15 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Design Qualification and Type Approval—Part 1-3: Special Requirements for Testing of Thin-Film Amorphous Silicon Based Photovoltaic (PV) Modules. 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/61348 (accessed on 15 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Design Qualification and Type Approval—Part 1-4: Special Requirements for Testing of Thin-Film Cu(In,GA)(S,Se)2 Based Photovoltaic (PV) Modules. 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/61349 (accessed on 15 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Design Qualification and Type Approval—Part 2: Test Procedures. 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/61350 (accessed on 16 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic (PV) Module Safety Qualification—Part 1: Requirements for Construction. 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/25674 (accessed on 16 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic (PV) Module Safety Qualification—Part 2: Requirements for Testing. 2016. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/25680 (accessed on 16 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Salt Mist Corrosion Testing. 2020. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/59588 (accessed on 20 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Test Methods for the Detection of Potential-Induced Degradation—Part 1-1: Crystalline Silicon—Delamination. 2020. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/28390 (accessed on 20 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Transportation Testing—Part 1: Transportation and Shipping of Module Package Units. 2022. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/64172 (accessed on 20 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Junction Boxes for Photovoltaic Modules—Safety Requirements and Tests. 2020. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/32347 (accessed on 20 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Connectors for DC-Application in Photovoltaic Systems—Safety Requirements and Tests. 2014. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/7463 (accessed on 20 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic Modules—Bypass Diode—Thermal Runaway Test. 2017. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/31701 (accessed on 21 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Quality System for PV Module Manufacturing. 2019. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/61932 (accessed on 22 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic (PV) Modules—Cyclic (Dynamic) Mechanical Load Testing. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/24310 (accessed on 25 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Environmental Testing—Part 2-68: Tests—Test L: Dust and Sand. 1994. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/551 (accessed on 25 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Safety of Power Converters for Use in Photovoltaic Power Systems—Part 1: General Requirements. 2010. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/6470 (accessed on 25 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Safety of Power Converters for Use in Photovoltaic Power Systems—Part 2: Particular Requirements for Inverters. 2011. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/6471 (accessed on 30 March 2023).
- European Standard (EN). Overall Efficiency of Grid Connected Photovoltaic Inverters. 2010. Available online: https://www.en-standard.eu/csn-en-50530-overall-efficiency-of-grid-connected-photovoltaic-inverters/ (accessed on 30 March 2023).
- European Standard (EN). Data Sheet and Name Plate for Photovoltaic Inverters. 2009. Available online: https://www.en-standard.eu/csn-en-50524-data-sheet-and-name-plate-for-photovoltaic-inverters/ (accessed on 30 March 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Utility-Interconnected Photovoltaic Inverters—Test Procedure of Islanding Prevention Measures. 2014. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/6479 (accessed on 1 April 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Utility-Interconnected Photovoltaic Inverters—Test Procedure for Under Voltage Ride-Through Measurements. 2020. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/64174 (accessed on 1 April 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic Power Generating Systems—EMC Requirements and Test Methods for Power Conversion Equipment. 2017. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/33868 (accessed on 1 April 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 3-2: Limits—Limits for Harmonic Current Emissions (Equipment Input Current ≤16 A Per Phase). 2018. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/28164 (accessed on 2 April 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 3-12: Limits—Limits for Harmonic Currents Produced by Equipment Connected to Public Low-Voltage Systems with Input Current >16 A and ≤75 A Per Phase. 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/69084 (accessed on 2 April 2023).
- European Standard (EN). Electric Cables for Photovoltaic Systems. 2015. Available online: https://www.en-standard.eu/bs-en-50618-2014-electric-cables-for-photovoltaic-systems-bt-de-not-258/ (accessed on 5 April 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Electric Cables for Photovoltaic Systems with a Voltage Rating of 1.5 kV DC. 2017. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/28067 (accessed on 5 April 2023).
- European Standard (EN). Electronic Equipment for Use in Power Installations. 1997. Available online: https://www.en-standard.eu/ilnas-en-50178-electronic-equipment-for-use-in-power-installations/ (accessed on 7 April 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Safety Requirements for Power Electronic Converter Systems and Equipment—Part 1: General. 2022. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/28936 (accessed on 10 April 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Photovoltaic System Power Conversion Equipment—Design Qualification and Type Approval. 2022. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/34094 (accessed on 10 April 2023).
- International Electrotechnical Comission (IEC). Low-Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear Assemblies—Part 2: Power Switchgear and Controlgear Assemblies. 2020. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/30043 (accessed on 10 April 2023).
- Hoppe, T.; Coenen, F.; van den Berg, M. Illustrating the use of concepts from the discipline of policy studies in energy research: An explorative literature review. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2016, 21, 12–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Country | Renewable Energy Targets | Renewable Energy | Regulatory Policies | Fiscal Incentives and Public Financing | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Feed-in Tariff/ Premium Payment | Electric Utility Quota Obligation/ RPS | Net metering/ Billing | Transport Obligation/ Mandate | Heat Obligation/ Mandate | Tradable REC | Tendering | Investment or Production Tax Credits | Reductions in Sales, Energy, CO2, VAT or Other Taxes | Energy Production Payment | Public Investment, Loans, Grants, Capital Subsidies or Rebates | |||
United States | P ◊ | □ | □ ◊ | □ ◊ | ● | □ | □ | ◌ | ● | ● | ● ◊ | ||
United Kingdom | E, P, T, HC | ● ◊ | ● | ● | ● | ○ | ● | ● | ● | ||||
Germany | E, P, HC, T | ● ◊ | ● | ● | ● | ○ | ● | ● | ● ◊ | ||||
Canada | P | ● | □ ◊ | □ | □ | ● | ◌ | ● | ● | ● | |||
China | E ◊, P, HC | ● | ● ◊ | ● | □ | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
India | P, HC | ● | □ ◊ | ● | □ ◊ | □ ◊ | □ | ● | ○ | ● | ● | ● | ● |
Saudi Arabia | P | ● | ● | ● |
Document | Type | Organization | Year | Status | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regulation | Standard | Code | Enforce | Proposed | Expired | |||
Small-Scale Solar PV Systems Regulations >[54] | √ | Electricity and Cogeneration Regulatory Authority | 2017 | √ | ||||
Technical Standards for the Connection of Small-scale Solar PV Systems to the LV and MV Distribution Networks of SEC [52] | √ | Saudi Electricity Company | 2018 | √ | ||||
The Electricity Law [55] | √ | Electricity and Cogeneration Regulatory Authority | 2007 | √ | ||||
The Saudi Arabian Distribution Code [56] | √ | Saudi Electricity Company | 2011 | √ | ||||
Saudi Arabian Grid Code [57] | √ | National Grid Saudi Arabia | 2017 | √ | ||||
The Saudi Building Code Electrical Requirements [58] | √ | Saudi Building Code National Committee | 2007 | √ |
Standard Type | Standard No. | Standard Level | Organization | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
National | International | SASO | IEC | EN | ||
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules—Design qualification and type approval—Part 1: Test requirements [59]. | SASO IEC 61215-1:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules—Design qualification and type approval—Part 1-1: Special requirements for testing of crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) modules [60]. | SASO IEC 61215-1-1:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules—Design qualification and type approval—Part 1-2: Special requirements for testing of thin-film cadmium telluride (CdTe)-based photovoltaic (PV) modules [61]. | SASO IEC 61215-1-2:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules—Design qualification and type approval—Part 1-3: Special requirements for testing of thin-film amorphous silicon-based photovoltaic (PV) modules [62]. | SASO IEC 61215-1-3:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules—Design qualification and type approval—Part 1-4: Special requirements for testing of thin-film Cu(In,GA)(S,Se)2-based photovoltaic (PV) modules [63]. | SASO IEC 61215-1-4:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules—Design qualification and type approval—Part 2: Test procedures [64]. | SASO IEC 61215-2:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification—Part 1: Requirements for construction [65]. | SASO IEC 61730-1:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification—Part 2: Requirements for testing [66] | SASO IEC 61730-2:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Salt mist corrosion testing of photovoltaic (PV) modules [67]. | SASO IEC 61701:2014 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Photovoltaic (PV) modules—Test methods for the detection of potential-induced degradation—Part 1: Crystalline silicon [68]. | SASO IEC TS 62804-1:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Photovoltaic (PV) modules—Ammonia corrosion testing. | SASO IEC 62716:2016 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Photovoltaic (PV) modules—Transportation testing—Part 1: Transportation and shipping of module package units [69]. | SASO IEC 62759-1:2015 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Junction boxes for photovoltaic modules—Safety requirements and tests [70] | SASO IEC 62790:2015 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Connectors for DC application in photovoltaic systems—Safety requirements and tests [71]. | SASO IEC 62852:2015 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Photovoltaic modules—Bypass diode—Thermal runaway test [72]. | SASO IEC 62979:2018 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules—Quality system for PV module manufacturing [73] | SASO IEC TS 62941:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Photovoltaic (PV) modules—Cyclic (dynamic) mechanical load testing [74]. | SASO IEC TS 62782:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Environmental testing—Part 2-68: Tests—Test L: Dust and sand [75]. | IEC 60068-2-68:1994 | √ | • | • | ||
Safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic power systems—Part 1: General requirements [76]. | SASO IEC 62109-1:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic power systems—Part 2: Particular requirements for inverters [77]. | SASO IEC 62109-2:2012 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Overall efficiency of grid-connected photovoltaic inverters [78]. | EN 50530:2010 | √ | • | |||
Data sheet and nameplate for photovoltaic inverters [79]. | EN 50524:2009 | √ | • | |||
Utility-interconnected photovoltaic inverters—Test procedure of islanding prevention measures [80]. | SASO IEC 62116:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Utility-interconnected photovoltaic inverters—Test procedure for low voltage ride-through measurements [81]. | SASO IEC TS 62910:2017 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Photovoltaic power-generating systems—EMC requirements and test methods for power conversion equipment [82]. | SASO IEC 62920:2018 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)—Part 3-2: Limits—Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current ≤16 A per phase) [83]. | IEC 61000-3-2:2014 | √ | • | |||
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)—Part 3-12: Limits—Limits for harmonic currents produced by equipment connected to public low-voltage systems with input current >16 A and ≤75 A per phase [84]. | IEC 61000-3-12:2011 | √ | • | |||
Electric cables for photovoltaic systems [85]. | EN 50618:2014 | √ | • | |||
Electric cables for photovoltaic systems with a voltage rating of 1.5 kV DC [86]. | SASO IEC 62930:2018 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Electronic equipment for use in power installations [87]. | EN 50178:1997 | √ | • | |||
CSV Consolidated version—Safety requirements for power electronic converter systems and equipment—Part 1: General [88]. | IEC 62477-1:2012 | √ | • | |||
Balance-of-system components for photovoltaic systems—Design qualification natural environments [89]. | SASO IEC 62093:2008 | √ | √ | • | • | |
Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies—Part 2: Power switchgear and control gear assemblies [90]. | IEC 61439-2:2011 | √ | • |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ali, A. Transforming Saudi Arabia’s Energy Landscape towards a Sustainable Future: Progress of Solar Photovoltaic Energy Deployment. Sustainability 2023, 15, 8420. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108420
Ali A. Transforming Saudi Arabia’s Energy Landscape towards a Sustainable Future: Progress of Solar Photovoltaic Energy Deployment. Sustainability. 2023; 15(10):8420. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108420
Chicago/Turabian StyleAli, Amjad. 2023. "Transforming Saudi Arabia’s Energy Landscape towards a Sustainable Future: Progress of Solar Photovoltaic Energy Deployment" Sustainability 15, no. 10: 8420. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108420
APA StyleAli, A. (2023). Transforming Saudi Arabia’s Energy Landscape towards a Sustainable Future: Progress of Solar Photovoltaic Energy Deployment. Sustainability, 15(10), 8420. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108420