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15 September 2021

A Review of Research on Tourism Industry, Economic Crisis and Mitigation Process of the Loss: Analysis on Pre, During and Post Pandemic Situation

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1
School of Economics, Guangdong University of Finance and Economics, Guangzhou 510320, China
2
Department of Economics, Management and Business Law, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Largo Abbazia Santa Scolastica, 53-70124 Bari, Italy
3
Department of Business and Economics, University of Beira Interior, Estrada do Sineiro, 6200-209 Covilhã, Portugal
4
NECE, University of Beira Interior, Estrada do Sineiro, 6200-209 Covilhã, Portugal
Sustainability2021, 13(18), 10314;https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810314
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Abstract

Throughout time, the global tourism industry and economy have been significantly affected by disasters and crises. At present, COVID-19 represents one of these disasters as it has been causing a serious economic downturn with huge implications in tourism. In this review paper, we have analysed more than 100 papers regarding the effect and consequences of a pandemic on tourism and related industries, the economic situation in countries and areas, and mitigation of the loss incurred due to pandemic situations. The article (1) is based on past research on tourism and economy, (2) examines the effects of a pandemic on listed sectors and mitigation processes, and (3) suggests future research and approaches to help progress the field. We have gathered and categorised the literature reviews into several parts. In addition, we have listed the name of authors, journal names, books, websites, and relevant data.

1. Introduction

After conducting a review of the estimates, it is suggested that if at least three factors are present for the emergence of a new virus, we may call it a pandemic [1]: (1) People do not have much immunity against the virus; (2) The virus spreads from one person to another; and (3) No effective vaccine against the virus is readily available yet. Generally, the impact of tourism can be exacerbated by crisis and disaster. In particular, the effect of a pandemic on the tourism sector is not the same for all regions or countries. For example, during and after the SARS epidemic period, Thailand’s second international gateway, Phuket, suffered a decrease of 67.2% of international tourist arrival from January to June of 2005. Through a collection of information derived almost entirely from published sources and an administered questionnaire, it has been estimated that more than 500 tourism companies, employing approximately 3000 people, had collapsed during these few months with predictions of job losses [2]. Similarly, Wilder-Smith [3] through a discussion on the actions taken for international travel, pointed out that there was a downward trend of 12 million arrivals in Asia Pacific countries due to the spread of the Avian Flu epidemic. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) [4] has conducted research on the economic impact of travel and tourism in about 190 countries and has estimated that more than 3 million people in the tourism and related industry have lost their jobs due to the outbreak of SARS. It was most severe in affected countries like China, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Vietnam, which resulted in losses of approximately USD 20 billion in terms of GDP. During the pandemic, there was less occupancy rate (lower than 20% of its full capacity) in the Chinese hotel industry as well [5]. The consequences of the pandemic were not just in Asia but in America as well. The cholera pandemic in Peru in 1991 cost the country more than USD 770 million due to adverse effects on tourism and food trade embargoes [6]. Gössling et al. [7] compared the impacts of COVID-19 with previous pandemics and other global crises, and explored the changes following a pandemic. The authors highlighted that tourism is particularly susceptible to the measures (such as international, regional, and local travel restrictions) imposed to deal with pandemics.
Meanwhile, the impact of preventive and control measures in Mexico before and during the 1991–2001 cholera epidemic was described in a review. Mexico experienced a paradoxical benefit during and after the cholera pandemic during 1991–2001 [8]. Surprisingly, Mexico did not experience any decrease in tourism activities during the last period. Some other researchers have tried to find some positive effects of the pandemic. Sigala’s [9] article, conducting a critical review of past and emerging literature, discussed the opportunity to consider COVID-19 as an opportunity for transformation. Brouder [10], observing the Evolutionary economic geography (EEG), saw in COVID-19 a unique opportunity for tourism from the political-institutional point of view and its total transformation.
The applicability of the contingent behaviour (CB) method was examined for analysis processes and policies of the recovery of tourism demand in Japan by Okuyama et al. [11]. In their research work, they have designed event, safety, visitor information, and price discounting policies.
After covering the related literature, we have found that there is no such systematic representation of the topic that will give a clear idea regarding the pandemic situation, the tourism sector, the economic activities, and the mitigation of losses due to the pandemic. Thus, the main objective of this study was to gather the literature reviews of the studies that indicate the effects of the pandemic on tourism, economics, and the mitigation process of the loss incurred by these various pre, during, and post-pandemic situations. Although some papers investigated about the issue of pandemic on tourism, there was no such systematised review article published in a peer-reviewed journal yet.

3. Graphical Analysis of the Findings

After conducting this structured review, some graphic summaries are presented to allow easier use of the study. Firstly, Figure 2 presents a subdivision of the analysed scientific literature divided into four different pandemic phases.
Figure 2. Covered literature. Source: Author’s elaboration.
The number of studies during the pandemic situation (total number: 46) was higher than other situations, while the category of past pandemic situations (total number: 28) also has numerous research articles published in peer-reviewed journals. We analysed three studies for pre-pandemic and five for post-pandemic situations. The total number of articles that have been read is 80, of which two covered both pre- and post-pandemic situations (study number 42 in the table in the Appendix A) and study number 67 (in the table in the Appendix A) covered the pandemic and the past pandemic situation. For this reason, the total literature covered was 82. The reason could be the length of the pandemic, as it may extend up to several years. Policymaking and conceptual studies done in the post-pandemic situation also had a great contribution to mitigating the loss incurred due to different pandemics. Some precautionary research articles were published at the pre-pandemic duration. Some NGOs, WHO, and regional health schemes have conducted several pre-pandemic articles as well.
Secondly, we conducted an aggregation by macro-areas covered by the journals and the respective articles analysed as in Table 1. Most products have an orientation towards Mitigation/Control and Tourism. On the contrary, we found less orientation towards economic and economy, and tourism.
Table 1. List of covered journal and orientation. Source: Author’s elaboration.
Thirdly, the pie chart in Figure 2 makes the contents of Table 1 even more simple.
Table 1 and Figure 2 above show us the lists of covered journals and the orientation of the covered studies. The number of tourism and related articles were the highest (36), while mitigation and control process were 24 in number. Economic-related studies were 14, and the combination of tourism and economic studies were 6 (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Contribution of total study among sectors.
In conclusion, Figure 4 highlighted the peak of publications for the year 2020 with 41 studies published for the topics of this review, whereas, as regards the previous pandemics, the studies have been very few (from one to four publications per year). Therefore, this phenomenon of interest for research on tourism, economy, and mitigation of pandemic crisis must continue to be monitored.
Figure 4. Number of studied articles by year of publication.

5. Economic Effects of Pandemics

There is evidence of numerous declining visitor numbers, weakened profits, increasing unemployment, less government revenue, and reduced investment [51]. All these can often exacerbate social and economic conditions and may propel the nation into a worsened state of fragility [52]. According to Wang et al. [53], the COVID-19 crisis is affecting the emergence and development of world trade and economy and created the question for survival of businesses around the globe. The authors explored some companies in China to understand what marketing strategies they have adopted. They focused on the low and high levels of collaborative innovations and two levels of motivation (problematic search and slack search). COVID-19 has a significant effect on our daily life and that of earning sources, businesses, disrupting the global trade, interactions and movements [54]. Glover et al. [55] developed a conceptual framework to classify the negative effects that COVID-19 blockade measures have had on the population. Due to COVID-19, the economy tends to be stagnant in many countries. No matter the size of the economy, the current COVID-19 pandemic seems to have a direct effect on the economy at different levels. Assumably, there is speculation that the region with higher integration with the global economy will suffer more due to COVID-19 than the region that has lower integration [56]. Unfortunately, the current lockdown will have a direct effect on the GDP of world major economies; hence, for each month, there would be an approximate loss of +/− 2% points in annual GDP growth [57]. Bakas and Triantafyllou [58] investigated the economic uncertainty caused by global pandemics empirically by analysing the volatility of the commodity, gold, and crude oil price index. The study results showed that this uncertainty has a great impact on the volatility of the commodity and crude oil markets, while on the gold market it has a positive but less significant effect. One of the most affected countries by COVID-19, India, has suffered greatly, economically [59]. Sharif et al. [60] also analysed the nexus between oil price volatility, geopolitical risk, COVID-19, stock market, and the uncertainty of economic law and policy in the United States.
It is forecasted by IMF (International Monetary Fund) that India’s economic growth would be lowered by 1.3% to 4.8% between 2020 and 2021. The Indian statistical bureau also has published similar types of forecasts and says the GDP growth rate would follow a downward trend for India. Ashraf [61] has conducted quantitative research by using the extensive daily data for 77 countries from January 22 to 12 April 2020. He has shown the effect on the economy due to government announcements regarding social distance the study also provides a negative effect on stock market returns due to less economic activity and adverse effects. Another research shows that pandemic uncertainties have a strong negative impact on commodity markets, daily necessaries, luxury items, and the taxicab industry [58]. He and Harris [62] conducted an initial review of how the COVID-19 pandemic can affect CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) and marketing. Their result shows the negative impact of the pandemic on CSR and marketing channels.
Developed countries like the UK also suffered due to the 2008–2009 influenza pandemic. Estimated costs were approximately 5% to 1% of GDP just for illness. For low fatality situations, it is something like 3.3%, and for high fatality situations, it is 4.3% and ever-larger still for the extreme pandemic situation [63]. Correia et al. [64] have presented two main interesting insights on their research. Firstly, they found that regions that were severely affected by the 1918 Flu pandemic saw a persistent and sharp decline in real economic activities. Secondly, cities that took proper initiatives and implemented early and extensive NPIs (Non-Pharmaceutical Intervention) suffered no higher adverse economic effects in the long term. Certainly, there is a major effect of the pandemic on the United States economic uncertainty. Even though the COVID-19 risk is perceived differently over the long-run and short-run could be firstly considered as an economic crisis [65]. Given the current coronavirus crisis, business-to-business (B2B) companies have faced challenges in a complex and rapidly changing environment [66]. Akhtaruzzaman et al. [67] highlighted that listed companies, both financial and non-financial corporations, experienced a significant increase in conditional correlations between equity returns during the COVID-19 epidemic. As argued by the authors, none of the previously published papers attempted to examine the effects of COVID-19 on financial corporations versus non-financial corporations. Additionally, to analyse the impact of the crisis for COVID-19 on a company’s business model, the authors analysed eight B2B companies to outline a future overcoming strategy. Two key contributions were provided: the first, academic, highlighting on how the current coronavirus crisis is affecting business models; the second, professional, developing a process model to manage this crisis. The empirical study drew on the insights of eight companies during the COVID-19 crisis, providing some reflections on the impacts that some crises can have. According to the authors, some situations such as loss of profits can become a foundation of strength after the crisis (e.g., customer loyalty). The key point highlighted by Ritter and Pedersen [66] is the difference between facing challenges during the coronavirus crisis and facing challenges due to that crisis. In this sense, the implications for the business are significant from the pre-existing weaknesses in the business model and from the managerial inability to deal with these weaknesses before the crisis. Therefore, the authors said that without awareness of adequate preparation, business models would be at risk and, therefore, organisations will have to rethink their management approaches by providing new solutions in which to invest to deal with these risks. The effect of the pandemic on economic and daily activities was also severe in some cases. According to Pantano et al. [68], the COVID-19 pandemic is causing several short- and medium-term outages in the retail sector, too.

6. Long-Run Implications and Effect Following Pandemics

In recent months, some articles have focused on the long-term effects associated with the pandemic. Among these, Ching Goh [69] focused on the strategies proposed within the touristic industry and by the government for overcome the current crisis for a better tourism. The author also found that few studies have addressed health-related crises in developing countries such as Malaysia and even fewer studies have addressed the threat of tourism sector epidemics. Therefore, as Ching Goh [69] states, recovery will greatly depend on the availability of vaccines and the confidence to travel for holidays, as UNWTO has also indicated. Instead, according to Praveen [70], hoteliers, during the stop phase, could be used as vaccination distribution centres and designated by tour guides to coordinate vaccine groups. Thus, vaccinated people could travel without the need to quarantine and safely enter Malaysia. On the contrary, however, a series of challenges, possible solutions and ways to follow have been launched to relaunch the tourism sector in the uncertainties of Covid-19 [71]. However, the administration of the COVID-19 vaccine represents an important measure to allow tourism to recover as suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) [72]. Unfortunately, people are still afraid of the vaccine and the safety of its side effects. These factors guide their vaccination decision [73]. However, public and private institutions have a great responsibility. Government, pharmaceutical companies, and doctors play an important role in vaccine confidence as they must emphasise efficacy and reduce concerns [74]. For this reason, [71] through a questionnaire administered, the authors found that despite the government’s focus on the tourism sector, people are still undecided about travel. The other side of the coin is that it emerged from some studies that rich countries have already secured 60% of the total supply of vaccines against COVID-19, while developing countries such as India have had to start a diplomatic campaign called “Vaccine Maitri” to provide COVID-19 vaccine doses to low-income countries in need. In particular, rich countries, which account for 16% of the world’s population, have already secured 60% of the total vaccine supplies for their citizens [75]. Among these rich countries, Canada primarily has pre-ordered enough vaccine doses to vaccinate nine times its population, while the UK has enough doses to vaccinate six times; the United States, Australia, Chile, and European Union members have pre-ordered supplies of vaccines beyond their national needs [76]. Despite everything, during the COVID-19 crisis, a number of measures were taken to limit travel and social activities outside the home. These measures have had a great impact on travel and modes of transport. of travel. Some authors have investigated the differences in individual travel behaviours during and after the COVID-19 pandemic in the city of Huzhou. Following some semi-structured interviews to examine the influence of COVID-19 on travel behaviour and perceptions of different groups, the results indicated that the travel demand was significantly reduced, the decrease in travel reduced the participation in different activities, and the duration of the impacts varied from person to person. However, a positive effect was recorded by investments related to COVID-19 in the field of medical research amounting to CNY 116.9 billion. These funds have been used for vaccine research, medical supplies, drug reserves, hospital construction and other aspects related to the prevention and treatment of pandemics [77]. Some authors have also studied how some airlines struggling with falling demand during the COVID-19 pandemic are promoting the adoption of Sustainable Aviation Fuel during this difficult time to experience a more sustainable recovery [78]. Other authors, on the other hand, have analysed how the eating habits of consumers in Russia have changed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Through an online survey, the potential problems and opportunities that this could entail for the Russian food system were analysed. The results revealed consumers have reduced the number of shopping trips and shopping more with each trip to minimise shop visits; stocks of non-perishable food products have been increased; healthier diets have been adopted; increase in culinary skills and a decrease in food waste have been observed [79]. According to Corazza and Musso [80] as the virus continues to spread around the world and mass vaccinations are in place, transport policymakers need to analyse the changing mobility and seek alternative solutions. Another problem is that during the autumn 2020 lockdown, restaurants were again forced to limit their opening hours, and many closed permanently. This led to the abandonment of the external areas with consequent long-term economic damage for the municipality, due to the lack of revenue from parking rates and from public land rents. Finally, some authors [81] focused on some differences between the post-pandemic effects. For example, a global safety agenda was established following the H1N1 flu. After Ebola in 2014, world leaders convened at the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting in Davos. COVID-19 faced urgent implementation issues and the scope of vaccination programs around the world for make sure no programs are left behind. An Asian countertrend, instead, was highlighted by Thrombe and Agarwal [82]: the impact of COVID-19 on the travel behaviour and mobility patterns of individuals was assessed by conducting a web survey in the urban agglomerations of India. The findings indicated an increase in the Pan-Indian level of car addiction following the COVID-19 crisis.
In conclusion, on the other hand, the results recorded by Ghanbari [83] through a clinical study were positive: people with a weak immune system recorded an important improvement rate through adequate medical incentives to prevent the widespread and unbridled epidemic of the second wave of COVID-19. For this reason, providing information on the safety and efficacy of new COVID-19 vaccines would positively increase the vaccine rush [84]. Indeed, the global vaccination process is crucial for the reboot of the mass tourism industry. In fact, the voluntary participation of people is required to reduce the health risks of guests, visitors, and staff [85]. However, while immunisation is highly effective for public health, even more efforts are needed to improve currently suboptimal rates of vaccination against various diseases among adults who may be at risk due to their age, medical condition or occupation [86]. The doubt about COVID-19 vaccination arises because they are new brands of consumer health technology introduced into the market. Hence, consumer behaviour approaches are critical to reduce the risk of vaccine hesitation, greater transparency, effective messaging, trust, and fair distribution [87]. However, the study by Gursoy et al. [88] found that over 70% of US respondents are willing to be vaccinated with a COVID-19 vaccine to improve living conditions.

7. Control and Mitigation of the Loss from Pandemics

From a review of the recent crisis recovery processes conducted by Ioanniddes and Gyimóthy [89], it emerged that the tourism sector could recover from this sudden market shock for government interventions. Studies with mixed methods that combine quantitative analyses with strong qualitative observations are hoped to be an interesting solution. Other authors [90] presented six examples of what a pandemic research program might look like to predict a new paradigm. They suggested that the pandemic stressed that tourism must be understood in the wider global economic and political context. The paper presented by Bruinen de Bruin et al. [91] made an explanation of risk mitigation methods persuaded by countries around the globe facing the present COVID-19 pandemic. The authors have gathered risk mitigation measures taken globally to contain and, since March 2020, to lessen the spread of the virus. The authors stressed, however, that at the time of drafting, it was still too early to express quantitative efficacy at every mitigation cluster. This article is based on the study of national literature, the media and information channels, considering the current pandemic. The authors have collected and grouped the risk mitigation measures adopted first worldwide in an attempt to contain and lessen the risks of COVID-19 by controlling the spread of the virus. The aim was to make a collection of mitigation measures available globally and to highlight the importance of sharing information between countries and sectors to improve risk governance. From a conceptual point of view, this document provided a collection of the various risk mitigation measures adopted around using a harmonisation of the taxonomic approach. Kassa et al. [92] analysed a mathematical model for the transmission of the COVID-19 disease. Therefore, in the absence of vaccination, countries should detect and sent to isolation at least 35% of the asymptomatic infectious patients and isolate at least 50% of symptomatic groups to control disease progression. Using the mathematical model, the decision-makers should estimate the risk and try to predict the spread of the virus among the citizens. Generally speaking, the combination of a mathematical model and infection disease rate would identify some common background that might help to create a model and system to understand and mitigate the loss. To some extent, COVID-19 has a similar pattern of spreading with that of SARS. Thus, the indirect transmission through the environment, individual’s behaviour in the society, popular events, and visits to historical places has to be taken into consideration.
Starting from the large-scale simulation of the flu pandemic conducted by the Ministry of Health of Indonesia, in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2017, multi-sectorial capacity in response to the pandemic in Indonesia [93] assessed the strengths and weaknesses of the International Health Regulations (IHR). To provide useful information for planning actions against future pandemics, Panovska-Griffiths et al. [94] investigated the effects of using vaccination programs and the absence of anti-viral drugs. Using existing literature and some discussions with policymakers in the UK, four past flu pandemics have been analysed. In all the circumstances considered, the vaccination was more advantageous if it started on time and covered as many people as possible. The authors recommend future planning with the use of timely (i.e., previously purchased) vaccines against emerging flu pandemics. Marczinski [95] analysed the effects of vaccination following a flu pandemic. He conducted a study analysing the perceptions of H1N1 vaccines and stated the need to better analyse the psychological characteristics of patients to plan an effective vaccination campaign.
Many possible interventions and precautions have the potential to mitigate the potential effect that occurs due to the pandemic, but still, there is no single magic bullet that can be very effective under any circumstances [96]. No doubt the COVID-19 pandemic has revealed insufficiency of knowledge of epidemic responses and preparedness for any individual nation. The authors [97] highlighted that existing digital inequalities have been amplified with the COVID-19 crisis. They conclude that a series of community and political actions and interventions are necessary to consolidate community safeness to support the vulnerable people and to prevent the inequalities existing in public health. Gallego and Font [98] used a Big Data-based methodology from which timely and essential granular data are derived in highly volatile situations, such as the COVID-19 crisis. In addition, patient reporting and tracking regularly of flu, influenza, and other respiratory diseases globally could be used as a useful tool for creating fundamental respiratory disease information guidelines and monitoring for signals of a future epidemic or other events of international importance [99]. Crick and Crick [100] also highlighted the heterogeneity of cooperation strategies that industries can use in the time of global crisis and, therefore, the need for closely related professionals to balance the benefits and risks of coopetition activities. Thus, more research and a globally integrated process are necessary to mitigate and lessen the outbreak next time. Within the time frame, the development of national and international effective communication channels and response protocols will certainly allow integrated global action [101]. In addition, dynamic models and tools establishment can ensure that the world is better prepared for a future pandemic. China has learned a lesson from the previous H1N1 pandemic that science and technology can play a vital role to control the spread of the virus and mitigate the loss that might occur due to the pandemic and related issues [102]. Apart from that, veterinarians also can play a great role in infectious diseases like SARS, COVID-19, and so on, as these diseases are quite familiar to veterinarians for a long time [103]. The experience they (veterinarians) have gained while dealing with the community health system such as controlling and characterisation of earlier health issues of poultry and livestock including avian flu, foot, bluetongue and mouth diseases, are responsible for huge social and economic losses, is no doubt of great help to lessen the impact of the world crisis.

8. Summary and Future Research Scope

Countries relying on the tourism and travel industry have suffered the most from the surge in COVID-19 cases worldwide. Vaccine tourism is a necessity to rebuild the scope of tourism and the creative economy. Countries like Thailand and Indonesia are trying to introduce vaccine tourism to rejuvenate their economy, and the repercussions are yet to be unveiled [104]. Domestic tourism (75% of the tourism economy in OECD countries) could be another vital source to recover the entire tourism sector. Inland local tourism offers the chance for driving recovery, particularly in regions, cities, and countries where the sector supports many jobs and businesses. Proper planning, coordination, and early preparedness against the response of COVID-19, SARS, and any other related respiratory diseases should provide a unique opportunity to build and implement a worldwide effective system. This system should be helpful for sustainability and surveillance to meet global, regional, and local needs. Introducing tax incentives for the infected sectors, SMEs, and individuals would certainly mitigate the economic and social loss that have occurred due to the pandemic. It is suggested to strengthen the resilience of the related economic sector as well. Insurance coverage for the unemployed, health coverage, social security, supporting business securities, and funds to prevent job losses are also very important to run the economic activities and mitigate the loss. Some studies recommend that there should exist palliative measures taking place for all and this will help to reduce the economic difficulties and hardship as a result of this pandemic [105].
Future study scope could focus on theoretical and conceptual model building, creating more public awareness policies to mitigate to control and lessening the loss, more advanced technological involvement to identify the infected and hotspots areas, contact traces, invention of the vaccine, testing and refinement by related empirical studies. Models from other related disciplines to explore parts of macro- and micro-level models could be adopted or used for future study as well. Linking up the greater micro- to the macro-level focus of study may be helped by meso-level theories. It could be necessary to provide more focus on concepts that have relation and implications across parts of the tourism sector and related industries’ involvement.
Benjamin et al. [106] say that resilient post-pandemic tourism must be fair and fair in terms of stakeholders; research, however, must publicly involve the travel industry. The author Crossley [107] explored the relationship between the COVID-19 epidemic and the climate change movement. More research and analysis are needed related to tourism, the behaviour of medical tourists, the rationale for travel, the economic and social impact of medical tourism, the role of middlemen and intermediaries, the place of medical and related tourism within tourism (linkages with hotels, airlines, travel agents), and ethical and moral concerns and global health restructuring [108]. Even until now, there is still significant scope of scientific evidence of the way how influenza viruses are transmitted. Thus, there is a scope of future studies to understand the basic transmission way or patterns of influenza viruses and their effective mitigation process [96]. As suggested, it is also possible to have further research study on the long-term effect of a public health crisis on the travel and tourism industry. Moreover, the longer-term effect and implication on destination competitiveness tourism should be revealed [109].
Many major regional powers like South Africa and India enjoy the benefits of medical tourism from neighbouring countries. Due to some reason like the coronavirus outbreak, or being cheated by middlemen, access to these benefits may be hampered. There should be extensive research to find out the underlying reasons. The danger for ‘disenfranchised’ medical tourists from nearby countries of South Africa is that some sort of xenophobia about South Africa may increase exclusion and denial of treatment. Along with other related tourism, medical tourism, epidemic prevention method, the effect of the pandemic on South Africa’s medical tourism requires further research [110]. Celebrities, ministers, medics, academics, and others have been writing and tweeting “Stay Home” and “flatten the curve” in Saudi Arabia [111], but still, the country is suffering from many new infected people. There should be research on social media’s impact to flatten the curve and controlling the outbreak. Finally, researchers have to continue focusing on these issues to provide useful tools to public and private stakeholders planning post-pandemic crisis models and solutions. In conclusion, global vaccination coverage can only be achieved by ensuring equal access to COVID-19 vaccines [75].

Author Contributions

A.P., methodology, writing—original draft preparation, and validation; T.C., data curation, visualization, and resources; M.A.B., writing—review and editing; H.A., visualization and supervision by H.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

There was no funding for this research study.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We thank all of our co-authors who has been put a great effort to finish this work. We would like to thank Liu Jun and Zhang Qiannan to help us for this project. All the help from the library personnel of GDUFE was really appreciable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A. List of Covered Journals and Main Information

No.Journal NameAuthor and YearStudy RegionPandemicKeywords
1Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy(Yoshimura et al., 2017)JapanInfluenza Travel Japan, Infectious Diseas
2Tourism Management(Okuyama, 2018)Kyoto, JapanBird fluNatural Disaster, Tourism Demand, Recovery Process, Contingent Behavior Method
3One Health(Lorusso et al., 2020)ItalyCOVID, SARSSARS-Cov-2, COVID-19, Molecular Characterization, Next Generation Sequencing,
Mutations Variants, One Health, Veterinarian
4Mathematics and Computers in Simulation(Lim, McAleer, & Min, 2009) Japan, TaiwanPre-pandemicInternational Tourism Demand; ARMAX Modelling; Income Elasticity;
New Zealand; Taiwan
5Tourism Management(Kuo, Chen, Tseng, Ju, & Huang, 2008)Asian countriesAvian flu, influenza, SARSSARS; Avian Flu; International Travel; ARMAX; Dynamic Panel Model
6Disease a month(McFee, 2007) WorldSpanish fluNot Found
7Public Health(Briand, Mounts, & Chamberland, 2011)GlobalCoVsSurveillance, Influenza, Pandemic, H1n1
8International Journal of Infectious Diseases(Sepulveda, Valdespino, & Garcia-Garcia, 2006)MexicoCholeraCholera, Control Program, Mexico, Vibrio Cholerae
9Tourism Management(Connell, 2013)Global, ThailandPandemicMedical Tourism, Medical Travel, Procedures, Typology, Diaspora, Tourist Numbers, Marketing, Multinationals
10Annals of Tourism Research(Yang, Zhang, & Chen, 2020)WuhanPandemicNot Found
11Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives(Sobieralski, 2020)GlobalCOVID-19Airline Labor, COVID-19, Recessions, Uncertainty, Unemployment
12Science of the Total Environment(Chakraborty & Maity, 2020)GlobalCOVID-19COVID-19, Pandemics, Global Health, Economic, Prevention
13Annals of Tourism Research(Li, Nguyen, & Coca-Stefaniak, 2020)ChinaCOVID-19Not Found
14Journal of Clinical EpidemiologyGlover et al., 2020 WorldCOVID-19COVID-19; Equity; Inequity; Adverse effects; Public health; Impact assessment
15Tourism Management(Perles et al., 2017)SpainPandemicEconomic Crisis, Destination Competitiveness, Permanent Shocks, Economic
Transmission Mechanisms, Switching Regression Models
16Health Policy(Keogh-Brown & Smith, 2008)WorldInfluenza Macro-Economics; Cost; Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Virus
17Social Science & Medicine(Crush & Chikanda, 2015)South-AfricaIn generalMigration, Medical Tourism, South Africa, Transnational Healthcare
18Journal of Business Research(Pantano et al., 2020)In GeneralCOVID-19Retailing; Consumer behavior; COVID-19; Emergency; Retail strategy; Pandemic
19Journal of infection (Aitken, Chin, Liew, & Ofori-Asenso, 2020)WorldCOVID-19Not Found
20Public Health(Liang et al., 2012)ChinaH1N1Response, Pandemic (H1n1) 2009, China, Lessons
21Journal of Infection and Public Health(Algaissi et al., 2020)Saudi ArabiaMERSSaudi Arabia, COVID-19, MERS-Cov, Control Measures, Travel Restrictions
22Japanese society of came therapy(Oshitani, 2006)HongkongH1N1Influenza, Pandemic, Mitigating Strategy
23International journal of Tourism Research(Henderson & Ng, 2004)Asian CountriesSARSNot Found
24Book: Tourism Crises(Henderson, 2007)WorldPandemicBook
25Annals of Tourism Research(Novelli, Morgan, & Nibigira, 2012)BurundiPost-conflictPost-Conflict, Societies Rapid, Situation Analysis, Hopeful Tourism, Fragile States,
Africa, Burundi
26Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing(De Sausmarez, 2004)MalaysiaAsian crisisTourism, Malaysia, Asian Financial Crisis, Crisis Management, Private Sector
27Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome(Gopalan, Misra, Research, & Reviews, 2020)IndiaCOVID-19Not Found
28Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance(Ashraf, 2020)WorldCOVID-19COVID-19, Coronavirus, SARS-Cov-2, Pandemic, Stock Market Government Interventions, Social Distancing
29Economics Letters(Bakas & Triantafyllou, 2020)WorldCOVID-19Commodity Markets, Economic Uncertainty, Volatility
30The BMJ(Smith, Keogh-Brown, Barnett, & Tait, 2009UKInfluenza Not Found
31Public Health Emergency Collection(Haleem, Javaid, & Vaishya, 2020)GeneralCOVID-19Not Found
32The Economic Historian(Correia, 2020)U.S.Spanish FluNot Found
33SSRN(Sharif, Aloui, Yarovaya, & Approach, 2020)U.S.COVID-19Not Found
34Book: centre of policy studies(Verikios et al., 2011)WorldInfluenza Book
35Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy(Yoshimura et al., 2017)JapanInfluenza Not Found
36IJALBS(Abodunrin et al., 2020)worldwidePandemicCoronavirus, Pandemic, Global Economy, Economy;COVID-19
37One Health(Lorusso et al., 2020)ItalyCOVID, SARSSARS-Cov-2, COVID-19, Molecular Characterization, Next Generation Sequencing,
Mutations Variants, One Health, Veterinarian
38Environmental Research(De Giglio et al., 2019)ItalyPandemicnot found
39International Journal of Surgery(Moletta et al., 2020)GlobalCOVID-19COVID-19, Surgery, Pandemic Emergency, Operatory room, Aerosol generating procedures
40Journal of Business Research(He & Harris, 2020)UkPandemicCOVID-19; Corporate Social Responsibility; Marketing; Consumer Ethical Decision
Making; Marketing Philosophy; Business Ethics
41Journal of Business Research(Sigala, 2020)WorldPost-COVIDTourism; COVID-19; Impacts; Recovery; Resilience; Crisis
42International Journal of Hospitality Management(Aladaga et al., 2020)WorldPre And Post-PandemicStrategy Implementation, Hospitality, Tourism, Strategic Management, Systematic
Literature Review
43Journal of Transport Geography(Suau Sanchez et al., 2020)China/WorldPandemicNot Found
44Industrial Marketing Management(Ritter, Pedersen, 2020)WorldPandemicBusiness Model, Value Proposition, Customer, Capability, Crisis, Impact Type
45Computer in Human Behaviour(Beaunoyer et al., 2020)Spain/WorldPandemicCoronavirus, COVID-19, Digital Inequalities, Pandemic, Vulnerable Population
46Safety Science(McCourta, et al., 2020)WorldPost PandemicCOVID-19, Risk Mitigation Measures, Corona Virus, Public Health, Mitigation
Impact, SARS-Cov-2
47Chaos, Solitons and Fractals (Semu et al., 2020)WorldPost PandemicCOVID-19 Epidemiological Model Self-Protection Disease Threshold Backward
Bifurcation Sensitivity Analysis Mitigation Strategy
48Journal of Business Research(Yonggui Wang et al., 2020) ChinaCOVID-19COVID-19, Crisis, Firms In China, Typology Marketing Innovation Strategies,
Dynamic Capabilities, Resource Dependence
49International Journal of Surgery(Maria et al., 2020)UKCOVID-19, SARSEconomy, Economic Impact, COVID-19, SARS-Cov-2, Coronavirus
50Industrial Marketing Management(James M. Crick, Dave Crick, 2020)UKPandemic Coopetition, Coronavirus, COVID-19, Business-To-Business Marketing,
51Finance Research Letter(Md Akhtaruzzamana, Sabri Boubakerb, Ahmet Sensoy, 2020)WorldCOVID-19COVID–19 Financial Contagion, Spillover Index, Financial Firms, Nonfinancial
Firms, Hedge Ratios
52International Review of Financial Analysis(Arshian Sharifa, Chaker Alouib, Larisa Yarovayac, 2020)USACOVID-19 PandemicCOVID-19, Economic Policy Uncertainty, Geopolitical Risk, Stock Market,
Oil Prices, Wavelet, Causality
53Tourism Management(Jina et al., 2019)East AsiaPre-PandemicCrisis event, Recovery, Chinese outbound tourism, Japan, South Korea
54Journal of Business Research(Eleonora et al., 2020)WorldPandemicRetailing, Consumer behavior, COVID-19, Emergency, Retail strategy, Pandemic
55Current issue in Tourism(Chen, Huang & Li, 2020)ChinaCOVID-19Tourism crisis; COVID-19; news coverage; content analysis; Gephi
56Tourism Geographies(Brouder, 2020)WorldCOVID-19COVID-19; evolutionary economic geography; path dependence; pathways; reset;
tourism; transformation
57Journal of Sustainable Tourism (Gössling, Scott & Hall, 2020)WorldCOVID-19Global change; COVID-19; pandemic; crisis; travel restrictions; tourism demand;
resilience
58Journal of Sustainable Tourism (Gallego & Font, 2020)WorldCOVID-19COVID-19; tourism; risk; Big Data; forecast; impact
59Annals of Tourism Research(Novelli et al., 2018)GambiaEbolaEbola, Tourism crisis, The Gambia, Perception, Preparedness, Recovery
60Tourism Management Perspectives(Cahyanto et al., 2016)USAEbolaEbola, Health Belief Model, Travel avoidance, United States
61Tourism Management(Hsiao et al., 2008)AsiaSARSSARS; Avian Flu; International travel; ARMAX; Dynamic panel model
62Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management(Tariq H. Haque, M. Ohidul Haque, 2018)BruneiSwine fluSwine flu, Global financial crisis, Tourism, ARIMA and intervention time series
analysis, models, Forecasting, Economy
63Tourism Management(Donohoe et al., 2015)USALyme diseaseHealth risk, Infectious disease, Lyme disease Ticks
64Environmental Research (Osvalda, et al., 2019)Southern of ItalyLegionellaLegionella, Geostatistical analysis, Climate, Touristic facilities
65Environmental Modelling and Software(Michael et al., 2010)AsiaSars and Avian FluSARS, Avian Flu, International tourism, Static fixed effects model, Dynamic panel,
Data model
66Journal of Infection and Public Health(Wignjadiputro et al., 2020)IndonesiaFlu pandemicInfluenza, Pandemic preparedness, Simulation exercise, Indonesia
67Journal of Theoretical Biology(Panovska-Griffiths et al., 2019)General/WorldInfluenza PandemicPandemic influenza Epidemiological modelling Net-present value of pandemic
immunisation Pre-purchase pandemic vaccine Responsive-purchase pandemic vaccine
68Tourism Management(Zenker & Kock, 2020)General/WorldPandemicCrises Disasters Coronavirus Covid 19 Pandemic Research Agenda
69Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics (Marczinski, 2012)USAFlu pandemicinfluenza, pandemic, perceptions, pH1N1, vaccination
70Tourism Geographies(Benjamin et al., 2020)USAPandemicCOVID-19, post-pandemic tourism, social equity, RESET
71Tourism Geographies(Ioannides & Szilvia Gyimóthy, 2020)WorldPandemicCOVID-19, pandemics, mobility, resilience, sustainable tourism, immobility
72Current Issues in Tourism(Seyitoğlu and Stanislav, 2020) WorldPandemicService robots, social robots, physical distancing, social connectedness, physically
and socially distant service, COVID-19
73Tourism Geographies(Hall et al., 2020)WorldPandemicCOVID-19, disaster recovery, sustainable tourism, disaster management, pandemic
impact, pandemic response, crisis management, resilience, tourism policy, third-order change
74Tourism Geographies(Crossley, 2020)WorldPandemicHopeful tourism, social media, environment, climate change, pandemic, wildlife, grief
75Annals of Tourism Research(Sharma & Nicolau, 2020)USACOVID-19Not Found
76Chaos, Solitons & Fractals(Kassa et al., 2020)WorldwideCOVID-19COVID-19, Epidemiological model, Self-protection, Disease threshold
77Annals of Tourism Research(Ritchne & Jiong, 2019)worldwideCrisisRisk, Crisis management, Disaster management, Resilience
78Vaccine(Fransisco et al., 2015)Low-middle incomeInfluenzaSystematic review, Influenza, Cost, Broader economic impact
79Schizophrenia Research(Brown et al., 2020)WorldwideCOVID-19Psychosis, Schizophrenia, Pandemic, Epidemic, SARS, MERS, COVID-19
80Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy(Visacri et al.,2020)WorldwideCOVID-19COVID-19, Pharmacists, Pharmaceutical services, Review
81The star(Praveen, A. 2021)MalaysiaCOVID-19Not found
82Research in Globalization(Ching Goh, Hong. 2021)MalaysiaCOVID-19High-value tourism, Mass tourism, Sustainable tourism, Pandemic, Sabah
83Journal of Destination Marketing & Management(Dash, S.B., Sharma, P. 2021) IndiaCOVID-19COVID-19, Policy, Tourism industries, Tourism revival, India, Pandemic
84World Health Organization (2021)WHO authorWorldwideCOVID-19Not found
85Frontline. (2021Desk AuthorIndiaCOVID-19Not Found
86NDTV. (2021)Desk ReporterIndiaCOVID-19Not Found
87Archives of Medical Research(Sharun, K., Dhama, K. 2021) GlobalCOVID-19COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Vaccine diplomacy, Vaccination coverage, Vaccine
88Blog, 2021Dhar B.IndiaCOVID-19Not Found
89Transportation Research Interdisciplinary PerspectivesYang, Y. et al. GlobalCOVID-19COVID-19,Well-being, Social equity, Travel behaviour
Transport and health, Transport planning
90Energy Research & Social Science,Santos, K., Delina, L. (2021)GlobalCOVID-19Sustainable aviation fuel, Airline emissions, Biofuels, Covid-19, Economic stimulus, Energy transition
91Appetite(Hassen, T.B. et al., 2021) RussiaCOVID-19COVID-19, Coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, Eating behavior, Diet, Food purchases, Food waste, Russia
92Transport Policy,(Corazza, M.V. et al., 2021) GlobalPandemicPandemic, Mobility, Transit, Emergency, Lockdown, New normal
93EClinicalMedicine(Hotez et al., 2021) GlobalCOVID-19COVID-19, Health equity, Vaccine distribution, therapeutics
94Transport Policy(Thombre, A. et al., 2021) GlobalCOVID-19Not Found
95Chaos solitons & Fractals(Ghanbari, B. 2020) IranCOVID-19Not Found
96British Journal Of Health Psychology(Davis, C.J., Golding, M., McKay, R, 2021)U.K.COVID-19Vaccine, COVID-19, Efficiency information
97Current Issues in Tourism(Williams, N.L. et al., 2021)GlobalCOVID-19Not Found
98European Journal Of Internal Medicine(Esposito, S., Durando, P., Bosis, S., Ansaldi, F., 2021)GlobalPandemicAdults; Infectious diseases; Prevention; The elderly; Vaccination; Vaccine.
99National Library of Medicine(Mojagi, M. 2021)GlobalCOVID-19COVID-19; COVID-19 Vaccine; Health Communication; Marketing; Public Health; Vaccine.
100The service Industries Journal(Gursoy, D. et al., 2021)GlobalCOVID-19vaccine hesitancytravel anxietyhospitalitytourismtravelers

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