Freeze–Thaw Durability of Basalt Fibre Reinforced Bio-Based Unsaturated Polyester Composite
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials
2.1. Bio-Based Resin
2.2. Oil-Based Resin
2.3. Basalt Fibre
2.4. Production of Composite Plates
3. Methods
3.1. Freeze–Thaw Environment
3.2. Experimental Characterisation
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Initial Characterisation
4.2. Water Absorption
4.3. Tensile Properties
4.4. In-Plane Shear Properties
Bio-Composite | Oil-Composite | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Property | Parameter | Preconditioning | 100 Cycle | 200 Cycle | 300 Cycle | Preconditioning | 100 Cycle | 200 Cycle | 300 Cycle |
Tensile strength | [MPa] | 487.3 | 452.4 | 450.0 | 439.4 | 558.5 | 536.8 | 505.2 | 489.6 |
SD | 11.0 | 13.0 | 7.3 | 21.5 | 10.2 | 10.3 | 9.7 | 25.8 | |
CV [%] | 2.3 | 2.9 | 1.6 | 4.9 | 1.8 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 5.3 | |
R [%] | 91 | 84 | 84 | 82 | 96 | 92 | 87 | 84 | |
Tensile modulus | [GPa] | 26.5 | 27.1 | 27.9 | 26.3 | 27.9 | 26.6 | 26.8 | 26.0 |
SD | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.5 | |
CV [%] | 1.8 | 2.4 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 2.2 | 2.9 | 2.4 | 2.0 | |
R [%] | 95 | 97 | 100 | 95 | 100 | 96 | 96 | 94 | |
In-plane shear strength | [MPa] | 26.6 | 26.2 | 27.5 | 29.0 | 33.5 | 38.9 | 36.5 | 39.9 |
SD | 0.4 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.4 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.0 | 0.5 | |
CV [%] | 1.4 | 3.7 | 2.9 | 4.8 | 4.9 | 4.1 | 2.7 | 1.3 | |
R [%] | 61 | 60 | 63 | 66 | 78 | 91 | 85 | 93 | |
In-plane shear modulus | [MPa] | 2.0 | 1.9 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 2.8 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.9 |
SD | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.2 | |
CV [%] | 9.1 | 10.7 | 6.4 | 4.4 | 2.3 | 10.1 | 8.9 | 8.1 | |
R [%] | 75 | 69 | 84 | 82 | 90 | 81 | 85 | 84 | |
Compressive strength | [MPa] | 90.0 | 94.3 | 97.5 | 90.8 | 124.6 | 128.3 | 124.4 | 133.3 |
SD | 7.1 | 20.1 | 11.6 | 18.0 | 12.2 | 16.5 | 10.4 | 6.6 | |
CV [%] | 7.9 | 21.3 | 11.9 | 19.9 | 9.8 | 12.8 | 8.4 | 5.0 | |
R [%] | 63 | 66 | 68 | 63 | 79 | 82 | 79 | 85 | |
Interlaminar shear strength | [MPa] | 9.1 | 11.3 | 11.9 | 11.3 | >14.2 | 16.4 | 15.7 | 16.1 |
SD | 0.4 | 0.3 | 1.2 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.7 | |
CV [%] | 4.1 | 3.0 | 10.3 | 5.1 | 4.0 | 4.7 | 4.8 | 4.3 | |
R [%] | 58 | 72 | 76 | 70 | 81 | 94 | 90 | 92 | |
Tg,onset | [°C] | 49.6 | 39.4 | 44.6 | 46.8 | 64.5 | 62.5 | 63.7 | 59.9 |
R [%] | 72 | 57 | 65 | 68 | 91 | 88 | 90 | 85 | |
Tg,tan(δ) | [°C] | 73.5 | 76.8 | 76.6 | 77.0 | 87.6 | 89.0 | 89.0 | 85.7 |
R [%] | 75 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 93 | 95 | 95 | 91 |
4.5. Compressive Strength
4.6. Interlaminar Shear Strength (ILSS)
4.7. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
4.8. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Properties | Bio-UPR | Oil-UPR | Standard (No. of Specimens) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tg | Onset E’ modulus [°C] | 70.6 | 75.3 | ISO 6721-11 [37] (2) |
tan(δ) [°C] | 103.6 | 102.4 | ||
Tension | σt [MPa] | 43.5 ± 3.4 (7.8%) | 45.3 ± 3.3 (7.3%) | ISO 527-4 [38] (10) |
Et [GPa] | 3.3 ± 0.03 (0.9%) | 3.3 ± 0.1 (3.4%) | ||
εt (m/m) [%] | 1.6 ± 0.1 (8.8%) | 1.7 ± 0.2 (11.7%) | ||
In-plane shear | σ12 [MPa] | 49.0 ± 3.4 (6.9%) | 54.1 ± 2.5 (4.7%) | ASTM D5379/D5379M [39] (8) |
G12 [GPa] | 1.6 ± 0.1 (8.4%) | 1.3 ± 0.1 (10.8%) |
Properties | Parameter | Bio-Composite | Oil-Composite |
---|---|---|---|
Tg | Onset E’ [°C] | 69.2 | 70.9 |
tan(δ) [°C] | 98.2 | 93.8 | |
Tension | σt [MPa] | 537.1 ± 23.6 (4.4%) | 583.0 ± 10.7 (1.8%) |
Et [GPa] | 27.8 ± 0.3 (1.1%) | 27.8 ± 0.6 (2.2%) | |
Compression | σc [MPa] | 143.3 ± 7.2 (5.0%) | 157.1 ± 17.2 (10.9%) |
In-plane shear | τ12 [MPa] | 43.8 ± 0.7 (1.6%) | 42.8 ± 1.8 (4.2%) |
G12 [GPa] | 2.7 ± 0.2 (7.9%) | 3.1 ± 0.3 (9.2%) | |
Interlaminar shear | σsbs [MPa] | 15.7 ± 1.2 (7.6%) | 17.5 ± 1.6 (9.2%) |
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Shahid, A.T.; Hofmann, M.; Garrido, M.; Correia, J.R.; Rosa, I.C. Freeze–Thaw Durability of Basalt Fibre Reinforced Bio-Based Unsaturated Polyester Composite. Materials 2023, 16, 5411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155411
Shahid AT, Hofmann M, Garrido M, Correia JR, Rosa IC. Freeze–Thaw Durability of Basalt Fibre Reinforced Bio-Based Unsaturated Polyester Composite. Materials. 2023; 16(15):5411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155411
Chicago/Turabian StyleShahid, Abu T., Mateus Hofmann, Mário Garrido, João R. Correia, and Inês C. Rosa. 2023. "Freeze–Thaw Durability of Basalt Fibre Reinforced Bio-Based Unsaturated Polyester Composite" Materials 16, no. 15: 5411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155411