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Journal of Eye Movement Research is published by MDPI from Volume 18 Issue 1 (2025). Previous articles were published by another publisher in Open Access under a CC-BY (or CC-BY-NC-ND) licence, and they are hosted by MDPI on mdpi.com as a courtesy and upon agreement with Bern Open Publishing (BOP).

J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 13, Issue 4 (September 2020) – 6 articles

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19 pages, 1025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oculomotor Fatigue and Neuropsychological Assessments Mirror Multiple Sclerosis Fatigue

by Wolfgang H. Zangemeister, Christof Heesen, Dorit Röhr and Stefan M. Gold

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(4), 1-19; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.4.6 - 14 Sep 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 57

Abstract

Fatigue is a major complaint in MS. Up to now no objective assessment tools have been established which hampers any treatment approach. Previous work has indicated an association of fatigue with cognitive measures of attention. Oculomotor tests have been established in healthy individuals as a read-out of fatigue, and to some extent in MS patients. Based on these observations we compared two groups of MS patients, one with fatigue (n = 28) and one without fatigue (n = 21) and a group of healthy subjects (n = 15) with a standardised computerised measure of alertness and an oculomotor stress test. Patients with fatigue showed highly significant changes of their saccade dynamics as defined by the Main Sequence and Phase Plane plots: They showed slowing of saccades, the characteristical fatigue double peak, and an asymmetrical phase plane. Oculomotor tests differentiated significantly between fatigue and fatigabiliy in our MS patients. They also showed significantly worse performance in the alertness test as well as in the oculomotor task. Significantly slower reaction times were observed for tonic alertness in 2 series without a cue (p = 0.025 and p = 0.037) but not in phasic alertness with a cue (p = 0.24 and p = 0.34). Performance was influenced by disability as well as by affective state. We conclude, when controlling for disability and depression, saccadic stress tests and alertness tests could be used as an objective read-out for fatigability and fatigue in MS patients. Full article

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20 pages, 1458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Teachers’ Gaze over Space and Time in a Real-World Classroom

by Zuzana Smidekova, Miroslav Janik, Eva Minarikova and Kenneth Holmqvist

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(4), 1-20; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.4.1 - 14 Sep 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 90

Abstract

Reading students’ faces and their body language, checking their worksheets, and keeping eye contact is a key trait of teacher competence. The new technology of mobile eye-tracking provides researchers with possibilities to explore teaching from the viewpoint of teacher gaze, but also introduces many new method questions. This study had the primary aim to investigate teachers’ attention distribution over space: the number and durations of several types of their gazes, and how their gaze depends on the factors of students´ gender, achievement, and position in the classroom. Results show that teacher gaze was distributed unevenly across both space and time. Teachers looked at the most-watched students 3–8 times more often than at the least-watched ones. Students sitting in the first row and the middle section received significantly more gaze than those sitting outside this zone. All three teachers made more single gaze visits—looking at the students but making no eye contact—than mutual gazes or student material gazes. The three teachers’ gaze distribution also varied substantially from lesson to lesson. Our results are important for understanding teacher behavior in real classrooms, but also point to the relevance of appropriate method design in future classroom studies with eye-tracking. Full article

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18 pages, 549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Eye-Tracking Study of Reading Long and Short Novel and Lexicalized Compound Words

by Jukka Hyönä, Alexander Pollatsek, Minna Koski and Henri Olkoniemi

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(4), 1-18; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.4.3 - 4 Aug 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 78

Abstract

An eye-tracking experiment examined the recognition of novel and lexicalized compound words during sentence reading. The frequency of the head noun in modifier-head compound words was manipulated to tap into the degree of compositional processing. This was done separately for long (12–16 letter) and short (7-9 letters) compound words. Based on the dual-route race model (Pollatsek et al., 4) and the visual acuity principle (Bertram & Hyönä, 2), long lexicalized and novel compound words were predicted to be processed via the decomposition route and short lexicalized compound words via the holistic route. Gaze duration and selective regression-path duration demonstrated a constituent frequency effect of similar size for long lexicalized and novel compound words. For short compound words the constituent frequency effect was negligible for lexicalized words but robust for novel words. The results are consistent with the visual acuity principle that assumes long novel compound words to be recognized via the decomposition route and short lexicalized compound words via the holistic route. Full article

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22 pages, 689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Information Gathering Framework—A Cognitive Model of Regressive Eye Movements During Reading

by Anna Fiona Weiss

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(4), 1-22; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.4.4 - 31 Jul 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 52

Abstract

In this article we present a new eye movement control framework that describes the interaction between fixation durations and regressive saccades during reading: The Information Gathering Framework (IGF). Based on the FC model proposed by Bicknell and Levy (15), the basic idea of the IGF is that a confidence level for each word is computed while being monitored by three independent thresholds. These thresholds shape eye movement behavior by increasing fixation duration, triggering a regression, or guiding regression target selection. In this way, the IGF does not only account for regressive eye movements but also provides a framework able to model eye movement control during reading across different scenarios. Importantly, within the IGF it is assumed that two different types of regressive eye movements exist which differ with regard to their releases (integrations difficulties vs. missing evidence) but also with regard to their time course. We tested the predictions of the IGF by re-analyzing an experiment of Weiss et al. (57) and found, inter alia, clear evidence for shorter fixation durations before regressive saccades relative to progressive saccades, with the exception of the last region. This clearly supports the assumptions of the IGF. In addition, we found evidence that there exists a window of about 15–20 characters to the left of the current fixation that plays an important role in target selection, probably indicating the perceptual span during a regressive saccade. Full article

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16 pages, 763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two Hours in Hollywood: A Manually Annotated Ground Truth Data Set of Eye Movements During Movie Clip Watching

by Ioannis Agtzidis, Mikhail Startsev and Michael Dorr

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(4), 1-16; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.4.5 - 27 Jul 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 50

Abstract

In this short article we present our manual annotation of the eye movement events in a subset of the large-scale eye tracking data set Hollywood2. Our labels include fixations, saccades, and smooth pursuits, as well as a noise event type (the latter representing either blinks, loss of tracking, or physically implausible signals). In order to achieve more consistent annotations, the gaze samples were labelled by a novice rater based on rudimentary algorithmic suggestions, and subsequently corrected by an expert rater. Overall, we annotated eye movement events in the recordings corresponding to 50 randomly selected test set clips and 6 training set clips from Hollywood2, which were viewed by 16 observers and amount to a total of approximately 130 min of gaze data. In these labels, 62.4% of the samples were attributed to fixations, 9.1%—to saccades, and, notably, 24.2%—to pursuit (the remainder marked as noise). After evaluation of 15 published eye movement classification algorithms on our newly collected annotated data set, we found that the most recent algorithms perform very well on average, and even reach human-level labelling quality for fixations and saccades, but all have a much larger room for improvement when it comes to smooth pursuit classification. The data set is made available at https://gin.g-node.org/ioannis.agtzidis/hollywood2_em. Full article

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29 pages, 1980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

To Look or Not to Look: Subliminal Abruptonset Cues Influence Constrained Free-Choice Saccades

by Seema Prasad and Ramesh Mishra

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(4), 1-29; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.4.2 - 20 Jul 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 38

Abstract

Subliminal cues have been shown to capture attention and modulate manual response behaviour but their impact on eye movement behaviour is not well-studied. In two experiments, we examined if subliminal cues influence constrained free-choice saccades and if this influence is under strategic control as a function of task-relevancy of the cues. On each trial, a display containing four filled circles at the centre of each quadrant was shown. A central coloured circle indicated the relevant visual field on each trial (Up or Down in Experiment 1; Left or Right in Experiment 2). Next, abrupt-onset cues were presented for 16 ms at one of the four locations. Participants were then asked to freely choose and make a saccade to one of the two target circles in the relevant visual field. The analysis of the frequency of saccades, saccade endpoint deviation and saccade latency revealed a significant influence of the relevant subliminal cues on saccadic decisions. Latency data showed reduced capture by spatiallyirrelevant cues under some conditions. These results indicate that spatial attentional control settings as defined in our study could modulate the influence of subliminal abrupt-onset cues on eye movement behaviour. We situate the findings of this study in the attention-capture debate and discuss the implications for the subliminal cueing literature. Full article

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J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 13, Issue 4 (September 2020) – 6 articles

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