Journal of Eye Movement Research

10 pages, 385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye Tracking and Visual Arts. Introduction to the Special Thematic Issue

by Raphael Rosenberg and Rudolf Groner

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-10; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.1 - 6 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 98

There is no visual art without the eye, just like no music without the ear. Visual art does not happen in the eye, but it has to go through the eye. Even for artworks with little visual focus, as in Conceptual Art, we [...] Read more.

There is no visual art without the eye, just like no music without the ear. Visual art does not happen in the eye, but it has to go through the eye. Even for artworks with little visual focus, as in Conceptual Art, we need eyes to create and receive them. In order to see we need to move our eyes. It is therefore not surprising that, for centuries, the eye and its movements have been a major topic of literature on art. It is equally unsurprising that along recent technological improvements of eye tracking, this technology has become prolific for studying visual arts. This special issue of the Journal of Eye Movement Research is the first platform that provides a broad picture of recent developments in this area. In this introduction we present a history of eye movement in art literature, followed by a sketch of some of the oculometric parameters used for studies of visual art. In the third section we showcase each contribution to this special issue. Full article

21 pages, 14127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Viewing Patterns and Perspectival Paintings: An Eye-Tracking Study on the Effect of the Vanishing Point

by Arthur Crucq

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-21; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.15 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 61

Abstract

Linear perspective has long been used to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on the picture plane. One of its central axioms comes from Euclidean geometry and holds that all parallel lines converge in a single vanishing point. Although linear perspective provided the [...] Read more.

Linear perspective has long been used to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on the picture plane. One of its central axioms comes from Euclidean geometry and holds that all parallel lines converge in a single vanishing point. Although linear perspective provided the painter with a means to organize the painting, the question is whether the gaze of the beholder is also affected by the underlying structure of linear perspective: for instance, in such a way that the orthogonals leading to the vanishing point also automatically guides the beholder’s gaze. This was researched during a pilot study by means of an eye-tracking experiment at the Lab for Cognitive Research in Art History (CReA) of the University of Vienna. It appears that in some compositions the vanishing point attracts the view of the participant. This effect is more significant when the vanishing point coincides with the central vertical axis of the painting, but is even stronger when the vanishing point also coincides with a major visual feature such as an object or figure. The latter calls into question what exactly attracts the gaze of the viewer, i.e., what comes first: the geometrical construct of the vanishing point or the visual feature? Full article

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17 pages, 15929 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interaction Between Image and Text During the Process of Biblical Art Reception

by Gregor Hardiess and Caecilie Weissert

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-17; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.14 - 12 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 46

Abstract

In our exploratory study, we ask how naive observers, without a distinct religious background, approach biblical art that combines image and text. For this purpose, we choose the book ‘New biblical figures of the Old and New Testament’ published in 1569 as source [...] Read more.

In our exploratory study, we ask how naive observers, without a distinct religious background, approach biblical art that combines image and text. For this purpose, we choose the book ‘New biblical figures of the Old and New Testament’ published in 1569 as source of the stimuli. This book belongs to the genre of illustrated Bibles, which were very popular during the Reformation. Since there is no empirical knowledge regarding the interaction between image and text during the process of such biblical art reception, we selected four relevant images from the book and measured the eye movements of participants in order to characterize and quantify their scanning behavior related to such stimuli in terms of i) looking at text (text usage), ii) text vs. image interaction measures (semantic or contextual relevance of text), and iii) narration. We show that texts capture attention early in the process of inspection and that text and image interact. Moreover, semantics of texts are used to guide eye movements later through the image, supporting the formation of the narrative. Full article

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17 pages, 1324 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Task-Dependent Eye-Movement Patterns in Viewing Art

by Nino Sharvashidze and Alexander C Schütz

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-17; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.12 - 16 Dec 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 76

Abstract

In art schools and classes for art history students are trained to pay attention to different aspects of an artwork, such as art movement characteristics and painting techniques. Experts are better at processing style and visual features of an artwork than nonprofessionals. Here [...] Read more.

In art schools and classes for art history students are trained to pay attention to different aspects of an artwork, such as art movement characteristics and painting techniques. Experts are better at processing style and visual features of an artwork than nonprofessionals. Here we tested the hypothesis that experts in art use different, task-dependent viewing strategies than nonprofessionals when analyzing a piece of art. We compared a group of art history students with a group of students with no art education background, while viewing 36 paintings under three discrimination tasks. Participants were asked to determine the art movement, the date and the medium of the paintings. We analyzed behavioral and eye-movement data of 27 participants. Our observers adjusted their viewing strategies according to the task, resulting in longer fixation du-rations and shorter saccade amplitudes for the medium detection task. We found higher task accuracy and subjective confidence, less congruence and higher dispersion in fixation locations in experts. Expertise also influenced saccade metrics, biasing it towards larger saccade amplitudes, advocating a more holistic scanning strategy of experts in all three tasks. Full article

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23 pages, 1831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role That Composition Plays in Determining How a Viewer Looks at Landscape Art

by Tanya Beelders and Luna Bergh

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-23; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.13 - 15 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 104

Abstract

Viewing artworks may be subject to the same processes as everyday scene selection in respect of gaze behaviour. However, artists may employ carefully constructed composition in their paintings to lead the eyes of viewers along a predetermined path. This paper investigates whether composition [...] Read more.

Viewing artworks may be subject to the same processes as everyday scene selection in respect of gaze behaviour. However, artists may employ carefully constructed composition in their paintings to lead the eyes of viewers along a predetermined path. This paper investigates whether composition is successful through comparison of expected scanpaths (constructed using the known intention of the artist) and actual scanpaths (as captured using an eye-tracker) based on a loci and sequence similarity index. The findings suggest that composition is successful in leading the eye, although the order of fixations can vary. It could thus be concluded that composition is largely successful in terms of salient elements, but less so for guiding elements. Furthermore, using Cognitive Linguistics theories and applying it to the paintings with reference to the statistical results, the Art Creation Continuum that captures the role of composition on a spectrum is proposed. Full article

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14 pages, 592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Closer, the Better? Processing Relations Between Picture Elements in Historical Paintings

by Manuela Glaser, Manuel Knoos and Stephan Schwan

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-14; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.11 - 1 Dec 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 50

Abstract

The present eye-tracking study investigated how audio explanations influence perception and the cognitive processing of historical paintings. Spatially close and distant pairs of picture elements and their semantic relations were named in an audio text either immediately after each other or with descriptions [...] Read more.

The present eye-tracking study investigated how audio explanations influence perception and the cognitive processing of historical paintings. Spatially close and distant pairs of picture elements and their semantic relations were named in an audio text either immediately after each other or with descriptions of other elements in between. It was assumed that the number of backward fixation counts on the first of the two mentioned related picture elements should be higher if they are spatially close rather than spatially distant. There should also be more backward fixation counts if the elements are named temporally close rather than temporally distant. Similar predictions were made for the retention of these picture elements and their relations. A 2x2x2 within-subject design (n=36) with spatial distance (close vs. distant), temporal distance (close vs. distant) and painting (Leutze vs. West) revealed more background fixation counts for spatially close compared to spatially distant elements but just for the Leutze painting. Accordingly, the relations between the spatially close pairs were retained better than between the spatially distant pairs in the Leutze painting but vice versa for the West painting. The results are discussed with regard to the spatial contiguity principle of multimedia learning and research on text coherence. Full article

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8 pages, 2474 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing a Calibration-Free Eye Tracker Prototype at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna

by Zoya Dare, Hanna Brinkmann and Raphael Rosenberg

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-8; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.10 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 71

Abstract

Eye tracking research in art viewership is often conducted in a laboratory setting where reproductions must be used in place of original art works and the viewing environment is less natural than in a museum. Recent technological developments have made museum studies possible [...] Read more.

Eye tracking research in art viewership is often conducted in a laboratory setting where reproductions must be used in place of original art works and the viewing environment is less natural than in a museum. Recent technological developments have made museum studies possible but head-mounted eye tracking gear and interruptions by researchers still influence the experience of the viewer. In order to find a more ecologically valid way of recording eye movements while viewing artworks, we employed a prototype of a calibration-free remote eye tracker hidden below selected paintings at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. Museum visitors were unaware of the study and informed post hoc that we had registered their viewing behavior and asked to give consent for the use of their data. This article presents the study design as well as results from over 800 participants. While the data quality from the eye tracker prototype was not sufficient to conduct the intended analysis on within-painting gaze movements, this study might serve as a step towards an unobtrusive examination of the art viewing experience. It was possible to analyze time spent viewing paintings and those results show that certain paintings consistently drew significantly more prolonged attention from viewers. Full article

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18 pages, 684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

You Read Best What You Read Most: An Eye Tracking Study

by Uroš Nedeljković, Kata Jovančić and Nace Pušnik

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-18; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.9 - 5 Nov 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 68

Abstract

At the threshold of the digital era, Zuzana Licko was of the opinion that familiar letterforms owe legibility to centuries-long exposure and that all new, prototypically unmatching forms would be equally legible if used as frequently. This paper examined the legibility in the [...] Read more.

At the threshold of the digital era, Zuzana Licko was of the opinion that familiar letterforms owe legibility to centuries-long exposure and that all new, prototypically unmatching forms would be equally legible if used as frequently. This paper examined the legibility in the context of familiarity—is it affected by the time of exposure to a particular typeface or a typeface’s universal structure. We ran repeated measures tests with exposure period in-between. The experiment was conducted using for this purpose designed typefaces as stimuli, and the eye-tracking on-screen reading technology. The results confirmed that one’s familiarity with a typeface influences one’s reading speed. The universal letter structure, recognized by Frutiger as the prototype skeleton, is the constant that a priori provides legibility. On the other hand, the period of exposure to uncommon letterforms also has a positive impact on legibility. Therefore, considering that the period of familiarity with the humanist letterforms has been continuous since their establishment, the maxim from the dawn of the digital era can be regarded as valid. Full article

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13 pages, 2125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Absorbing the Gaze, Scattering Looks: Klimt’s Distinctive Style and Its Two-Fold Effect on the Eye of the Beholder

by Anna Miscena, Jozsef Arato and Raphael Rosenberg

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-13; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.8 - 6 Oct 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 51

Abstract

Among the most renowned painters of the early twentieth century, Gustav Klimt is often associated—by experts and laymen alike—with a distinctive style of representation: the visual juxtaposition of realistic features and flattened ornamental patterns. Art historical writing suggests that this juxtaposition allows a [...] Read more.

Among the most renowned painters of the early twentieth century, Gustav Klimt is often associated—by experts and laymen alike—with a distinctive style of representation: the visual juxtaposition of realistic features and flattened ornamental patterns. Art historical writing suggests that this juxtaposition allows a two-fold experience; the perception of both the realm of art and the realm of life. While Klimt adopted a variety of stylistic choices in his career, this one popularised his work and was hardly ever used by other artists. The following study was designed to observe whether Klimt’s distinctive style causes a specific behaviour of the viewer, at the level of eye-movements. Twenty-one portraits were shown to thirty viewers while their eye-movements were recorded. The pictures included artworks by Klimt in both his distinctive and non-distinctive styles, as well as other artists of the same historical period. The recorded data show that only Klimt’s distinctive paintings induce a specific eyemovement pattern with alternating longer (“absorbed”) and shorter (“scattered”) fixations. We therefore claim that there is a behavioural correspondence to what art historical interpretations have so far asserted: The perception of “Klimt’s style” can be described as two-fold also at a physiological level. Full article

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13 pages, 1710 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Pictorial Composition Guide the Eye? Investigating Four Centuries of Last Supper Pictures

by Rosa Sancarlo, Zoya Dare, Jozsef Arato and Raphael Rosenberg

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-13; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.7 - 21 Aug 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 72

Abstract

Within art literature, there is a centuries-old assumption that the eye follows the lines set out by the composition of a painting. However, recent empirical findings suggest that this may not be true. This study investigates beholders’ saccadic eye movements while looking at [...] Read more.

Within art literature, there is a centuries-old assumption that the eye follows the lines set out by the composition of a painting. However, recent empirical findings suggest that this may not be true. This study investigates beholders’ saccadic eye movements while looking at fourteen paintings representing the scene of the Last Supper, and their perception of the compositions of those paintings. The experiment included three parts: 1) recording the eye movements of the participants looking at the paintings; 2) asking participants to draw the composition of the paintings; and 3) asking them to rate the amount of depth in the paintings. We developed a novel coefficient of similarity in order to quantify 1) the similarity between the saccades of different observers; 2) the similarity between the compositional drawings of different observers; and 3) the similarity between saccades and compositional drawings. For all of the tested paintings, we found a high, above-chance similarity between the saccades and between the compositional drawings. Additionally, for most of the paintings, we also found a high, above-chance similarity between compositional lines and saccades, both on a collective and on an individual level. Ultimately, our findings suggest that composition does influence visual perception. Full article

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19 pages, 999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Quantitative Analysis of the Taxonomy of Artistic Styles

by Viviane Clay, Johannes Schrumpf, Yannick Tessenow, Helmut Leder, Ulrich Ansorge and Peter König

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-19; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.5 - 20 Jun 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 93

Abstract

Classifying artists and their work as distinct art styles has been an important task of scholars in the field of art history. Due to its subjectivity, scholars often contradict one another. Our project investigated differences in aesthetic qualities of seven art styles through [...] Read more.

Classifying artists and their work as distinct art styles has been an important task of scholars in the field of art history. Due to its subjectivity, scholars often contradict one another. Our project investigated differences in aesthetic qualities of seven art styles through quantitative means. This was achieved with state-of-the-art deep-learning paradigms to generate new images resembling the style of an artist or entire era. We conducted psychological experiments to measure the behavior of subjects when viewing these new art images. Two different experiments were used: In an eye-tracking study, subjects viewed art-stylespecific generated images. Eye movements were recorded and then compared between art styles. In a visual singleton search study, subjects had to locate a style-outlier image among three images of an alternative style. Reaction time and accuracy were measured and analyzed. These experiments show that there are measurable differences in behavior when viewing images of varying art styles. From these differences, we constructed hierarchical clusterings relating art styles based on the different behaviors of subjects viewing the samples. Our study reveals a novel perspective on the classification of artworks into stylistic eras and motivates future research in the domain of empirical aesthetics through quantitative means. Full article

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29 pages, 800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Display Makes a Difference: A Mobile Eye Tracking Study on the Perception of Art before and after a Museum’s Rearrangement

by Luise Reitstätter, Hanna Brinkmann, Thiago Santini, Eva Specker, Zoya Dare, Flora Bakondi, Anna Miscená, Enkelejda Kasneci, Helmut Leder and Raphael Rosenberg

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-29; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.6 - 19 Jun 2020

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 129

Abstract

There is increasing awareness that the perception of art is affected by the way it is presented. In 2018, the Austrian Gallery Belvedere redisplayed its permanent collection. Our multidisciplinary team seized this opportunity to investigate the viewing behavior of specific artworks both before [...] Read more.

There is increasing awareness that the perception of art is affected by the way it is presented. In 2018, the Austrian Gallery Belvedere redisplayed its permanent collection. Our multidisciplinary team seized this opportunity to investigate the viewing behavior of specific artworks both before and after the museum’s rearrangement. In contrast to previous mobile eye tracking (MET) studies in museums, this study benefits from the comparison of two realistic display conditions (without any research interference), an unconstrained study design (working with regular museum visitors), and a large data sample (comprising 259 participants). We employed a mixed-method approach that combined mobile eye tracking, subjective mapping (a drawing task in conjunction with an open interview), and a questionnaire in order to relate gaze patterns to processes of meaning-making. Our results show that the new display made a difference in that it 1) generally increased the viewing times of the artworks; 2) clearly extended the reading times of labels; and 3) deepened visitors’ engagement with the artworks in their exhibition reflections. In contrast, interest in specific artworks and art form preferences proved to be robust and independent of presentation modes. Full article

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17 pages, 1567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Looking at Buswell's pictures

by Nicholas J. Wade

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-17; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.4 - 2 Jun 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 75

Abstract

In 1935 Guy Buswell, an educational psychologist at Chicago University, published How People Look at Pictures. In it he recorded photographically the eye movements of 200 observers when looking at a wide variety of pictures. He analysed the overall distribution of fixations [...] Read more.

In 1935 Guy Buswell, an educational psychologist at Chicago University, published How People Look at Pictures. In it he recorded photographically the eye movements of 200 observers when looking at a wide variety of pictures. He analysed the overall distribution of fixations on pictures, compared the first few fixations on a picture to the last few, measured the durations of fixations made early in viewing and those made near the end of viewing, examined how fixation duration changed with viewing time, recorded the consistency between different observers when viewing the same picture and he looked at the influence of instructions given to observers upon their eye movements when viewing a picture. He commented on the substantial differences between individuals and noted that instructions had a dramatic effect on the pattern of eye movements. Buswell’s analysis was graphical rather than statistical. In this article Buswell’s figures are recombined and his research is placed in the context of earlier investigations of eye movements with pictures by Stratton and Judd and later ones by Yarbus. Full article

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15 pages, 723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye-Tracking and Learning Experience: Gaze Trajectories to Better Understand the Behavior of Memorial Visitors

by Salma Mesmoudi, Stanislas Hommet and Denis Peschanski

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-15; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.3 - 16 May 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 70

Abstract

Eye-tracking technology is increasingly introduced in museums to assess their role in learning and knowledge transfer. However, their use provide limited quantitative and/or qualitative measures such as viewing time and/or gaze trajectory on an isolated object or image (Region of Interest “ROI”). The [...] Read more.

Eye-tracking technology is increasingly introduced in museums to assess their role in learning and knowledge transfer. However, their use provide limited quantitative and/or qualitative measures such as viewing time and/or gaze trajectory on an isolated object or image (Region of Interest “ROI”). The aim of this work is to evaluate the potential of the mobile eye-tracking to quantify the students’ experience and behaviors through their visit of the “Genocide and mass violence” area of the Caen memorial. In this study, we collected eye-tracking data from 17 students during their visit to the memorial. In addition, all visitors filled out a questionnaire before the visit, and a focus group was conducted before and after the visit. The first results of this study allowed us to analyze the viewing time spent by each visitor in front of 19-selected ROIs, and some of their specific sub-parts. The other important result was the reconstruction of the gaze trajectory through these ROIs. Our global trajectory approach allowed to complete the information obtained from an isolated ROI, and to identify some behaviors such as avoidance. Clustering analysis revealed some typical trajectories performed by specific sub-groups. The eye-tracking results were consolidated by the participants’ answers during the focus group. Full article

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29 pages, 1581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reading English-Language Haiku: An Eye-Movement Study of the ‘Cut Effect’

by Thomas Geyer, Franziska Günther, Hermann J. Müller, Jim Kacian, Heinrich René Liesefeld and Stella Pierides

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2020, 13(2), 1-29; https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.2.2 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 54

Abstract

The current study, set within the larger enterprise of Neuro-Cognitive Poetics, was designed to examine how readers deal with the ‘cut’—a more or less sharp semantic-conceptual break—in normative, three-line English-language haiku poems (ELH). Readers were presented with three-line haiku that consisted of two [...] Read more.

The current study, set within the larger enterprise of Neuro-Cognitive Poetics, was designed to examine how readers deal with the ‘cut’—a more or less sharp semantic-conceptual break—in normative, three-line English-language haiku poems (ELH). Readers were presented with three-line haiku that consisted of two (seemingly) disparate parts, a (two-line) ‘phrase’ image and a one-line ‘fragment’ image, in order to determine how they process the conceptual gap between these images when constructing the poem’s meaning—as reflected in their patterns of reading eye movements. In addition to replicating the basic ‘cut effect’, i.e., the extended fixation dwell time on the fragment line relative to the other lines, the present study examined (a) how this effect is influenced by whether the cut is purely implicit or explicitly marked by punctuation, and (b) whether the effect pattern could be delineated against a control condition of ‘uncut’, one-image haiku. For ‘cut’ vs. ‘uncut’ haiku, the results revealed the distribution of fixations across the poems to be modulated by the position of the cut (after line 1 vs. after line 2), the presence vs. absence of a cut marker, and the semanticconceptual distance between the two images (context–action vs. juxtaposition haiku). These formal-structural and conceptual-semantic properties were associated with systematic changes in how individual poem lines were scanned at first reading and then (selectively) re-sampled in second- and third-pass reading to construct and check global meaning. No such effects were found for one-image (control) haiku. We attribute this pattern to the operation of different meaning resolution processes during the comprehension of two-image haiku, which are invoked by both form- and meaning-related features of the poems. Full article

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J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 13, Issue 2 (January 2020) – 15 articles

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