Natural Cyanobacteria Removers Obtained from Bio-Waste Date-Palm Leaf Stalks and Black Alder Cone-Like Flowers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Synthesis of Materials
2.2.1. Carbonization Process
2.2.2. Activation Process
2.3. Characterization of Materials
2.3.1. Proximate/Ultimate Analysis and Lignocellulose Composition of Raw Samples
2.3.2. X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)
2.3.3. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
2.3.4. Nitrogen Physisorption at −196 °C
2.3.5. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM)
2.4. Qualitative and Quantitative Phytoplankton Analysis
2.5. Analysis of Adsorption Properties of Material
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Results of Physical and Chemical Characterization of Materials
3.1.1. Lignocellulose Composition
3.1.2. Results of X-ray Powder Diffraction
3.1.3. Results of Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
3.1.4. Results of Low Temperature N2 Physisorption
3.1.5. Results Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy
3.2. Results of Qualitative and Quantitative Phytoplankton Analysis
3.2.1. Results of Qualitative Phytoplankton Analysis
3.2.2. Results of Quantitative Phytoplankton Analysis
3.2.3. Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Cyanobacteria from Aleksandrovac Lake before and after the Water Treatment
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cellulose, % | Lignin, % | Hot Water Extractives, % | Hemicelluloses, % | Moisture, % | Ash (900 °C), % | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Date-palm Leaf Stalks | ||||||
P_RS ** | 25.1 ± 0.7 | 7.9 ± 0.5 | 48.66 ± 0.04 | 1.31 | 7.9 ± 0.2 * | 4.5 ± 0.3 |
Bendahou et al., 2007 [11] | 44.0 | 14.0 | / | 28.0 | / | 2.5 |
Alotaibi et al., 2019 [12] | 35.00 | 20.13 | / | 15.40 | 15.6 | 12.6 |
Black Alder Cone-like Flowers | ||||||
A_RS ** | 19.1 ± 1.2 | 29.6 ± 0.9 | 28.65 ± 1,14 | 10.67 | 10.5 ± 0.4 * | 2.7 ± 0.1 |
Mokrzycki et al., 2019 [13] | 20.9 | 29.7 | / | 29.3 | 6.4 | 2.6 |
C_AC | P_AC | A_AC | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Specific surface area (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller), Journal of the American Chemical Society. 60 (2), 309–319 | C | 1292 | 52 | 1287 |
S, m2 g−1 | 1100 | 36.6 | 485 | |
t-Plot (Lippens and de Boer); standard isotherms from literature: A. Lecloux, J.P. Pirard, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 70 (2), 1979 | Total surface area, m2 g−1 | 1105 | 36.1 | 446 |
Micropore volume, cm3 g−1 | 0.457 | 0.023 | 0.240 | |
Mesopores surface m2 g−1 | 6.3 | 3.4 | 10.4 | |
Micropore volume (Dubinin and Raduskevich), cm3 g−1 | 0.422 | 0.012 | 0.186 | |
Micropores (Horvath and Kawazoe), with potential function: N2 on Graphite @77.3 K from literature: G. Horvath, K. Kawazoe. J. Chem. Eng. Japan, 16, 6(1983), 470–475 | Maximum pore diameter, nm | 0.48 | - | 0.48 |
Cumulative pore volume, cm3 g−1 | 0.431 | - | 0.195 | |
Mesopore volume, cm3 g−1 | Adsorption branch of isotherm | 0.057 | 0.022 | 0.097 |
Desorption branch of isotherm | 0.099 | 0.029 | 0.125 | |
Total pore volume (Gurvich), cm3 g−1 | At p/p0 = 0.98 | 0.474 | 0.038 | 0.268 |
Cyanobacteria |
Anabaenopsis elenkinii V.Milleer |
Anathece minutissima (West) Komárek, Kastovsky and Jezberová |
Aphanocapsa Nägeli sp. |
Glaucospira G.Lagerheim sp. |
Jaaginema subtilissimum (Kütz. Ex De Toni) Anagn. et Kom. |
Limnothrix planctonica (Wolos.) Meffert |
Merismopedia glauca (Ehr.) Kütz. |
Microcystyis aeruginosa Kütz. |
Microcystis flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirchner |
Oscillatoria limosa C.Agardh ex Gomont |
Planktolyngbya limnetica (Lemmermann) Komárková-Legnerová and Cronberg |
Pseudanabaena limnetica (Lemm.) Komarek |
Raphidiopsis raciborskii Woloszynska) Aguilera et al. |
Snowella Elenkin sp. |
Synechocystis cf. aquatilis Sauvageau |
Dinophyta |
Gymnodinium Stein sp. |
Peridiniopsis Lemm. sp. |
Peridiniopsis cunningtonii Lemm. |
Chrysophyta |
Mallomonas Perty sp. |
Ochromonas Vysotskii (Wysotzki, Wyssotzki) sp. |
Cryptophyta |
Cryptomonas Ehr. spp. |
Rhodomonas lacustris Pascher and Ruttner |
Bacillariophyta |
Achnanthidium Kützing sp. (cf. minutissimum) |
Amphora lybica Ehrenberg |
Cyclotella (Kütz.) Bréb.sp. |
Cymbella C.Agardh. sp. |
Fragilaria ulna Sippen acus sensu L.-B. |
Gomphonema Ehr. sp. |
Navicula Bory sp. |
Stephanodiscus Ehr. sp. |
Chlorophyta |
Chlamydomonas Ehr. sp. |
Chlorella Beij. sp. |
Cosmarium Corda sp. |
Kirchneriella contorta (Schmidle) Bohl. |
Kirchneriella irregularis (G.M.Smith) Korshikov |
Monoraphidium contortum (Thur.) Com.-Legn. |
Mougeotia C.Agardh sp. |
Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turp.) Bréb. |
Scenedesmus semprevirens Chod. |
Sphaerocystis Chodat sp. |
Staurastrum Meyen ex Ralfs sp. |
Tetraedron minimum (A.Br.) Hansg |
Euglenophyta |
Euglena Ehr. sp. |
Euglena acus Ehr. |
Phacus pyrum (Ehr) W.Archer |
Trachelomonas volvocina Ehr. |
No | Cyanobacteria | Cyanotoxins | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Anabaenopsis elenkinii | not determined | / |
2. | Anathece minutissima | not determined | / |
3. | Aphanocapsa sp. | microcystin | [70] |
4. | Glaucospira sp. | not determined | / |
5. | Jaaginema subtilissimum | not determined | / |
6. | Limnothrix planctonica | not determined | / |
7. | Merismopedia glauca | not determined | / |
8. | Microcystyis aeruginosa | anatoxin, microcystin | [70] |
9. | Microcystis flos-aquae | microcystin | [70] |
10. | Oscillatoria limosa | microcystin | [70] |
11. | Planktolyngbya limnetica | not determined | / |
12. | Pseudanabaena limnetica | Anatoxin | [70] |
13. | Rhapidiopsis raciborskii | cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxin | [70] |
14. | Snowella sp. | not determined | / |
15. | Synechocystis cf. aquatilis | not determined | / |
Cyanotoxin | Chemical Structure | Molecular Weight | Effect |
---|---|---|---|
Anatoxin | Bicyclic alkaloid | 252 Da [70], 165 and 179 Da [71] | Neurotoxin, inhibits acetylcholine esterase [72,73] |
Cylindrospermopsin | Tricyclic guanidine alkaloid | 415 Da [72] | Toxic effect on multiple organs; neurotoxic, genotoxic, protein synthesis inhibitor, hepatotoxin [72,73] |
Microcystin | Cyclic peptides | from 800 to 1100 Da [72] | Hepatotoxic, tumor-causing, inhibition of eukaryotic phosphatase proteins PP1, PP2A, as well as phosphoprotein phosphatase PPP4, PPP5 [72,73] |
Saxitoxin | Alkaloids | from 241 to 491 [72] | Neurotoxic, blocks sodium transport channels [72,73] |
No. | Cyanobacteria | Before Treatment | After Treatment | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
P_AC | A_AC | C_AC | |||
[cell/mL] | [cell/mL] | ||||
1. | Anabaenopsis elenkinii | 280 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
2. | Anathece minutissima | 1280 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
3. | Aphanocapsa sp. | 640 | 0 | 0 | 247 |
4. | Glaucospira sp. | 49,150 | 143 | 93 | 20,876 |
5. | Jaaginema subtilissimum | 1,050,812 | 0 | 193 | 15,825 |
6. | Limnothrix planctonica | 1,018,116 | 463 | 194 | 6206 |
7. | Merismopedia glauca | 842,052 | 0 | 0 | 362,880 |
8. | Microcystyis aeruginosa | 63,193 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
9. | Microcystis flos-aquae | 17,554 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
10. | Oscillatoria limosa | 14,043 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
11. | Planktolyngbya limnetica | 129,898 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
12. | Pseudanabaena limnetica | 59,683 | 0 | 28 | 10,584 |
13. | Rhapidiopsis raciborskii | 1,330,286 | 104 | 98 | 5916 |
14. | Snowella sp. | 484,483 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
15. | Synechocystis cf. aquatilis | 31,597 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
SUM | 5,093,067 | 710 | 606 | 422,534 | |
The removal efficiency (%) | 99.99 | 99.99 | 89.79 |
No. | Cyanobacteria | Cell Shape | Length (µm) | Diameter/Width (µm) | Talus Type | Trichome Length (µm) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Anabaenopsis elenkinii | ellipsoid | 5.5–9.3 (3) 4–9 (12.9) | (2.8) 4–6(8) | trichome | ≤100 | [34,79,80,81] |
2. | Anathece minutissima | ellipsoid | 1.5 1–1.5–2 (?2.8) | 0.9 0.8–1 (1.6) | colony | / | [79,80] [32] |
3. | Aphanocapsa sp. | sphere | / | 1–1.5 * | colony | / | [32,82] |
4. | Glaucospira sp. | cylindrical | 0.5–2 | 2.7–6 | trichome | 36–60 | [83] |
5. | Jaaginema subtilissimum | cylindrical | Up to 5 µm | 1–1.5 | trichome | 150–300 | [33,84] |
6. | Limnothrix planctonica | cylindrical | 2–4 6–10 | 1.5–2.5 (3) | trichome | / | [33,79,80,85] |
7. | Merismopedia glauca | sphere | / | (2.8) 3–6 | colony | / | [32,79,80] |
8. | Microcystyis aeruginosa | sphere | / | 4–6 | colony | / | [32,79,80] |
9. | Microcystis flos-aquae | sphere | / | (2.5)3.5–4.8 (5.6?) | colony | / | [32,79,80] |
10. | Oscillatoria limosa | cylindrical | 1.8–3 1.5–5(6) | 10 (6?–9) 10–20 (22) | trichome | 10–100 | [86,87] [33] |
11. | Planktolyngbya limnetica | cylindrical | 1–2–5 (9?) | 0.5–1–1.8 (2.5?) | trichome | / | [33,79,80] |
12. | Pseudanabaena limnetica | cylindrical | 5-14 (1.2?) 4–12 (20?) | (1) 1.2–1.5 (2) | trichome | / | [33,79,80,88] |
13. | Rhapidiopsis raciborskii | cylindrical | 2.3–6.5 2.5–12 (16) | (1.7) 2–2.4 (−4?) | trichome | 107, 50–300 | [19,89,90,91] |
14. | Snowella sp. | sphere or elipsoid | 2.4–4 | 3.2 | colony | / | [32,79,80] |
15. | Synechocystis aquatilis | sphere | / | (3) 4.5–7 (7.8?) | colony | / | [32,92] |
No. | Cyanobacteria | Cell One Length | Average Trichomes Length before Treatment | Average Trichomes Length after Treatment | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P_AC | A_AC | C_AC | ||||
1. | Anabaenopsis elenkinii | 7 µm | 30 µm | / | / | / |
2. | Glaucospira sp. | 1.5 µm | 35 µm | 23–30 µm | 21–35 µm | 21–36 µm |
3. | Jaaginema subtilissimum | 1.7 µm | 48 µm | 20–41 µm | 18–45 µm | 21–48 µm |
4. | Limnothrix planctonica | 5 µm | 59 µm | 16–21 µm | 13–27 µm | 15–29 µm |
5. | Oscillatorialimosa | 3 µm | 37 µm | 30–35 µm | / | 32–35 µm |
6. | Planktolyngbya limnetica | 2 µm | 17 µm | / | / | / |
7. | Pseudanabaena limnetica | 5 µm | 141 µm | 38–63 µm | 32–59 µm | 39–62 µm |
8. | Rhapidiopsis raciborskii | 7 µm | 71 µm | 27–41 µm | 15–45 µm | 25–47 µm |
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Kandić, I.; Kragović, M.; Krstić, J.B.; Gulicovski, J.; Popović, J.; Rosić, M.; Karadžić, V.; Stojmenović, M. Natural Cyanobacteria Removers Obtained from Bio-Waste Date-Palm Leaf Stalks and Black Alder Cone-Like Flowers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 6639. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116639
Kandić I, Kragović M, Krstić JB, Gulicovski J, Popović J, Rosić M, Karadžić V, Stojmenović M. Natural Cyanobacteria Removers Obtained from Bio-Waste Date-Palm Leaf Stalks and Black Alder Cone-Like Flowers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(11):6639. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116639
Chicago/Turabian StyleKandić, Irina, Milan Kragović, Jugoslav B. Krstić, Jelena Gulicovski, Jasmina Popović, Milena Rosić, Vesna Karadžić, and Marija Stojmenović. 2022. "Natural Cyanobacteria Removers Obtained from Bio-Waste Date-Palm Leaf Stalks and Black Alder Cone-Like Flowers" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 11: 6639. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116639