Religious Affiliation in Relation to Positive Mental Health and Mental Disorders in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (i)
- Investigate whether religious affiliation to any religion or specific religions is associated with positive mental health and mental disorders; and
- (ii)
- Identify subcomponents of positive mental health that are associated with religious affiliations.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Assessment of Religious Affiliation
2.2. Assessment of Positive Mental Health and Mental Disorders
2.2.1. Positive Mental Health
2.2.2. Mental Disorders
2.3. Assessment of Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Overall Sample | Any Religious Affiliation | No Religious Affiliation | p Values # | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Mean, SD) | 42.1, 15.2 | 42.9, 15.0 | 39.5, 15.4 | 0.002 | |||||||
BMI (Mean, SD) | 24.4, 4.7 | 24.7, 4.8 | 23.1, 3.7 | <0.001 | |||||||
n | Wt. % | SE | n | Wt. % | SE | n | Wt. % | SE | |||
Age group | 18–34 yrs. | 679 | 34.9 | 0.1 | 576 | 32.2 | 0.8 | 103 | 44.4 | 3.0 | 0.008 |
35–49 yrs. | 618 | 33.3 | 0.0 | 564 | 34.5 | 0.8 | 54 | 29.3 | 2.9 | ||
50–64 yrs. | 611 | 24.5 | 0.1 | 560 | 25.6 | 0.7 | 51 | 20.6 | 2.5 | ||
65+ yrs. | 362 | 7.2 | 0.0 | 338 | 7.6 | 0.3 | 24 | 5.7 | 1.2 | ||
Gender | Women | 1162 | 52.1 | 1.5 | 1051 | 52.3 | 1.7 | 111 | 51.6 | 3.6 | 0.865 |
Men | 1108 | 47.9 | 1.5 | 987 | 47.7 | 1.7 | 121 | 48.4 | 3.6 | ||
Ethnic group | Malay | 603 | 10.4 | 0.1 | 602 | 13.2 | 0.3 | 5 | 0.1 | 0.1 | <0.001 |
Indian | 693 | 8.1 | 0.1 | 682 | 10.2 | 0.2 | 11 | 0.6 | 0.2 | ||
Others | 273 | 4.0 | 0.1 | 244 | 4.7 | 0.1 | 29 | 1.7 | 0.3 | ||
Chinese | 701 | 77.5 | 0.2 | 510 | 71.9 | 0.5 | 191 | 97.6 | 0.4 | ||
Marital status | Single | 666 | 37.9 | 1.1 | 557 | 35.0 | 1.3 | 109 | 48.2 | 3.4 | 0.004 |
Separated/divorced | 106 | 4.9 | 0.7 | 95 | 4.8 | 0.7 | 11 | 5.2 | 1.6 | ||
Widowed | 79 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 77 | 1.7 | 0.3 | 2 | 0.6 | 0.5 | ||
Married | 1419 | 55.7 | 1.3 | 1309 | 58.4 | 1.5 | 190 | 46.1 | 3.4 | ||
Education | Primary and below | 176 | 4.6 | 0.6 | 168 | 4.8 | 0.6 | 8 | 3.6 | 1.3 | 0.064 |
Secondary | 590 | 20.2 | 1.1 | 547 | 20.5 | 1.2 | 43 | 19.0 | 2.7 | ||
Pre-U/Junior College | 154 | 7.5 | 0.8 | 135 | 7.3 | 0.9 | 19 | 7.9 | 1.9 | ||
Vocational Institute/ITE | 160 | 5.5 | 0.6 | 156 | 6.4 | 0.7 | 4 | 2.1 | 1.0 | ||
Diploma | 461 | 22.4 | 1.3 | 414 | 23.0 | 1.4 | 47 | 20.2 | 2.9 | ||
University | 728 | 39.9 | 1.4 | 617 | 37.9 | 1.6 | 111 | 47.2 | 3.5 | ||
Employment status | Unemployed | 114 | 5.1 | 0.7 | 100 | 4.6 | 0.7 | 14 | 6.8 | 1.8 | 0.404 |
Economically inactive | 585 | 20.6 | 1.1 | 531 | 20.5 | 1.2 | 54 | 21.0 | 2.8 | ||
Employed | 1571 | 74.3 | 1.2 | 1407 | 74.9 | 1.3 | 164 | 72.1 | 3.1 | ||
Smoking status | Ex-smoker | 261 | 9.7 | 0.9 | 240 | 82.6 | 3.9 | 21 | 17.4 | 3.9 | 0.082 |
Never smoked | 1634 | 77.6 | 1.2 | 1447 | 76.6 | 1.6 | 187 | 23.4 | 1.6 | ||
Current smoker | 373 | 12.8 | 0.9 | 349 | 84.1 | 3.3 | 24 | 15.9 | 3.3 | ||
Any mental disorder ^ | Yes | 319 | 14.8 | 1.1 | 284 | 15.4 | 1.2 | 35 | 12.8 | 2.4 | 0.352 |
No | 1951 | 85.2 | 1.1 | 1754 | 84.6 | 1.2 | 197 | 87.2 | 2.4 | ||
Major depressive disorder | Yes | 131 | 6.6 | 0.8 | 117 | 6.9 | 0.9 | 14 | 5.5 | 1.6 | 0.456 |
No | 2139 | 93.4 | 0.8 | 1921 | 93.1 | 0.9 | 218 | 94.5 | 1.6 | ||
Bipolar disorder | Yes | 32 | 1.8 | 0.4 | 26 | 1.6 | 0.4 | 6 | 2.7 | 1.2 | 0.270 |
No | 2238 | 98.2 | 0.4 | 2012 | 98.4 | 0.4 | 226 | 97.3 | 1.2 | ||
Generalized anxiety disorder | Yes | 47 | 2.1 | 0.4 | 41 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 6 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 0.648 |
No | 2223 | 97.9 | 0.4 | 1997 | 97.8 | 0.5 | 226 | 98.3 | 0.9 | ||
Obsessive compulsive disorder | Yes | 92 | 4.4 | 0.6 | 83 | 4.3 | 0.7 | 9 | 4.8 | 1.6 | 0.773 |
No | 2178 | 95.6 | 0.6 | 1955 | 95.7 | 0.7 | 223 | 95.2 | 1.6 | ||
Alcohol use disorder | Yes | 90 | 4.6 | 0.6 | 79 | 4.8 | 0.7 | 11 | 3.9 | 1.4 | 0.594 |
No | 2180 | 95.4 | 0.6 | 1959 | 95.2 | 0.7 | 221 | 96.1 | 1.4 | ||
Any chronic physical condition ^^ | Yes | 1301 | 51.8 | 1.5 | 1185 | 52.6 | 1.6 | 116 | 48.8 | 3.5 | 0.334 |
No | 967 | 48.2 | 1.5 | 851 | 47.4 | 1.6 | 116 | 51.2 | 3.5 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | β | p | β | 95% CI | p | β | 95% CI | p | |||
Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | |||||||||
Total positive mental health | ||||||||||||
Any religious affiliation | 4.56 | 0.66 | 0.437 | <0.001 | 0.339 | 0.237 | 0.441 | <0.001 | 0.348 | 0.248 | 0.448 | <0.001 |
No religion | 4.12 | 0.63 | Ref | Ref | ||||||||
Total positive mental health @ | ||||||||||||
Any religious affiliation | 4.08 | 0.59 | 0.155 | <0.001 | 0.102 | 0.005 | 0.200 | 0.040 | 0.105 | 0.010 | 0.201 | 0.030 |
No religion | 3.92 | 0.61 | Ref | Ref | ||||||||
General coping | ||||||||||||
Any religious affiliation | 4.56 | 0.84 | 0.244 | <0.001 | 0.190 | 0.052 | 0.329 | 0.007 | 0.189 | 0.052 | 0.326 | 0.007 |
No religion | 4.32 | 0.88 | Ref | Ref | ||||||||
Emotional support | ||||||||||||
Any religious affiliation | 4.80 | 0.87 | 0.269 | <0.001 | 0.229 | 0.077 | 0.382 | 0.003 | 0.231 | 0.087 | 0.375 | 0.002 |
No religion | 4.53 | 0.96 | Ref | Ref | ||||||||
Spirituality | ||||||||||||
Any religious affiliation | 3.96 | 1.51 | 1.930 | <0.001 | 1.593 | 1.388 | 1.798 | <0.001 | 1.637 | 1.428 | 1.845 | <0.001 |
No religion | 2.03 | 1.18 | Ref | Ref | ||||||||
Interpersonal skills | ||||||||||||
Any religious affiliation | 4.69 | 0.73 | 0.177 | 0.002 | 0.125 | 0.004 | 0.246 | 0.043 | 0.125 | 0.004 | 0.246 | 0.043 |
No religion | 4.52 | 0.74 | Ref | Ref | ||||||||
Personal growth and autonomy | ||||||||||||
Any religious affiliation | 4.61 | 0.79 | 0.053 | 0.391 | −0.035 | −0.163 | 0.093 | 0.589 | −0.022 | −0.148 | 0.103 | 0.725 |
No religion | 4.56 | 0.79 | Ref | Ref | ||||||||
Global affect | ||||||||||||
Any religious affiliation | 4.56 | 0.66 | 0.168 | 0.012 | 0.138 | −0.002 | 0.278 | 0.053 | 0.136 | −0.002 | 0.275 | 0.053 |
No religion | 4.12 | 0.63 | Ref | Ref |
Mean | SD | 95% CI | Mean Difference in PMH Scores | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | Christianity | Taoism | Buddhism | Hinduism | Islam | Sikhism | |||
Total positive mental health | ||||||||||
Christianity | 4.61 | 0.68 | 4.53 | 4.69 | 0.00 | |||||
Taoism | 4.36 | 0.57 | 4.20 | 4.53 | −0.25 | 0.00 | ||||
Buddhism | 4.41 | 0.61 | 4.33 | 4.48 | −0.21 * | 0.04 | 0.00 | |||
Hinduism | 4.66 | 0.68 | 4.59 | 4.73 | −0.05 | 0.30 | 0.25 * | 0.00 | ||
Islam | 4.80 | 0.66 | 4.75 | 4.85 | 0.19 * | 0.44 * | 0.39 * | 0.14 # | 0.00 | |
Sikhism | 4.77 | 0.52 | 4.61 | 4.94 | 0.16 | 0.41 | 0.36 # | 0.11 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
No religion | 4.12 | 0.63 | 4.03 | 4.20 | −0.49 * | −0.25 | −0.29 * | −0.54 * | −0.68 * | −0.65 * |
Total positive mental health @ | ||||||||||
Christianity | 4.02 | 0.60 | 3.95 | 4.09 | 0.00 | |||||
Taoism | 4.02 | 0.54 | 3.86 | 4.18 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||||
Buddhism | 4.07 | 0.57 | 4.00 | 4.14 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.00 | |||
Hinduism | 4.14 | 0.61 | 4.07 | 4.20 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.00 | ||
Islam | 4.18 | 0.61 | 4.13 | 4.23 | 0.16 * | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.00 | |
Sikhism | 4.26 | 0.47 | 4.11 | 4.41 | 0.24 | 0.24 | 0.19 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.00 |
No religion | 3.92 | 0.61 | 3.84 | 4.00 | −0.10 | −0.10 | −0.15 | −0.22 * | −0.26 * | −0.34 # |
General coping | ||||||||||
Christianity | 4.51 | 0.83 | 4.41 | 4.61 | 0.00 | |||||
Taoism | 4.61 | 0.76 | 4.38 | 4.83 | 0.10 | 0.00 | ||||
Buddhism | 4.56 | 0.78 | 4.47 | 4.65 | 0.05 | −0.05 | 0.00 | |||
Hinduism | 4.47 | 0.99 | 4.37 | 4.58 | −0.04 | −0.13 | −0.09 | 0.00 | ||
Islam | 4.68 | 0.92 | 4.61 | 4.75 | 0.17 ^ | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.21 ^ | 0.00 | |
Sikhism | 4.65 | 0.84 | 4.36 | 4.93 | 0.14 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.17 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
No religion | 4.32 | 0.88 | 4.20 | 4.44 | −0.19 | −0.29 | −0.24 | -0.15 | −0.36 * | −0.33 |
Emotional support | ||||||||||
Christianity | 4.77 | 0.89 | 4.66 | 4.88 | 0.00 | |||||
Taoism | 4.65 | 0.95 | 4.38 | 4.93 | −0.12 | 0.00 | ||||
Buddhism | 4.79 | 0.89 | 4.69 | 4.88 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.00 | |||
Hinduism | 4.82 | 0.95 | 4.71 | 4.92 | 0.05 | 0.16 | 0.03 | 0.00 | ||
Islam | 4.94 | 0.88 | 4.88 | 5.01 | 0.17 # | 0.29 | 0.16 | 0.13 | 0.00 | |
Sikhism | 5.11 | 0.68 | 4.90 | 5.33 | 0.34 | 0.46 | 0.33 | 0.30 | 0.17 | 0.00 |
No religion | 4.53 | 0.96 | 4.40 | 4.67 | −0.24 # | −0.12 | −0.25 # | -0.28 ^ | -0.41 * | -0.58 ^ |
Spirituality | ||||||||||
Christianity | 4.68 | 1.28 | 4.52 | 4.83 | 0.00 | |||||
Taoism | 2.91 | 1.30 | 2.53 | 3.29 | −1.77 * | 0.00 | ||||
Buddhism | 3.02 | 1.29 | 2.87 | 3.17 | −1.66 * | 0.11 | 0.00 | |||
Hinduism | 4.31 | 1.31 | 4.17 | 4.45 | −0.37 * | 1.40 * | 1.29 * | 0.00 | ||
Islam | 4.96 | 1.00 | 4.88 | 5.04 | 0.28 ^ | 2.05 * | 1.94 * | 0.65 * | 0.00 | |
Sikhism | 4.30 | 1.49 | 3.75 | 4.84 | −0.38 | 1.39 * | 1.28 * | −0.01 | −0.66 # | 0.00 |
No religion | 2.03 | 1.18 | 1.87 | 2.19 | −2.65 * | −0.88 * | −0.99 * | −2.28 * | −2.93 * | −2.27 * |
Interpersonal skills | ||||||||||
Christianity | 4.63 | 0.75 | 4.54 | 4.72 | 0.00 | |||||
Taoism | 4.60 | 0.68 | 4.40 | 4.80 | –0.03 | 0.00 | ||||
Buddhism | 4.68 | 0.76 | 4.60 | 4.77 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.00 | |||
Hinduism | 4.81 | 0.71 | 4.74 | 4.89 | 0.18 ^ | 0.21 | 0.13 | 0.00 | ||
Islam | 4.82 | 0.74 | 4.75 | 4.88 | 0.19 * | 0.21 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.00 | |
Sikhism | 4.93 | 0.63 | 4.71 | 5.15 | 0.30 | 0.33 | 0.25 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.00 |
No religion | 4.52 | 0.74 | 4.41 | 4.62 | −0.11 | −0.08 | −0.16 | −0.29 * | −0.30 * | –0.41 # |
Personal growth and autonomy | ||||||||||
Christianity | 4.52 | 0.82 | 4.42 | 4.62 | 0.00 | |||||
Taoism | 4.53 | 0.66 | 4.34 | 4.73 | 0.01 | 0.00 | ||||
Buddhism | 4.61 | 0.71 | 4.52 | 4.70 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.00 | |||
Hinduism | 4.82 | 0.77 | 4.74 | 4.90 | 0.30 * | 0.29 | 0.21 # | 0.00 | ||
Islam | 4.72 | 0.82 | 4.66 | 4.78 | 0.20 * | 0.19 | 0.11 | −0.11 | 0.00 | |
Sikhism | 4.85 | 0.68 | 4.63 | 5.08 | 0.33 | 0.32 | 0.24 | 0.03 | 0.14 | 0.00 |
No religion | 4.56 | 0.79 | 4.45 | 4.67 | 0.04 | 0.02 | −0.06 | −0.27 ^ | −0.16 | −0.30 |
Global affect | ||||||||||
Christianity | 4.64 | 0.85 | 4.54 | 4.75 | 0.00 | |||||
Taoism | 4.79 | 0.87 | 4.53 | 5.05 | 0.15 | 0.00 | ||||
Buddhism | 4.64 | 0.82 | 4.54 | 4.74 | 0.01 | −0.15 | 0.00 | |||
Hinduism | 4.68 | 0.90 | 4.58 | 4.77 | 0.03 | −0.11 | 0.04 | 0.00 | ||
Islam | 4.72 | 0.88 | 4.65 | 4.79 | 0.07 | −0.07 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.00 | |
Sikhism | 4.73 | 0.66 | 4.49 | 4.97 | 0.09 | −0.06 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
No religion | 4.50 | 0.86 | 4.38 | 4.62 | −0.14 | −0.29 | −0.14 | −0.18 | −0.22 # | −0.23 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | 95% CI | P | β | 95% CI | P | β | 95% CI | P | ||||
Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | |||||||
Total positive mental health | ||||||||||||
Christianity | 0.494 | 0.375 | 0.614 | <0.001 | 0.454 | 0.330 | 0.579 | <0.001 | 0.443 | 0.320 | 0.566 | <0.001 |
Taoism | 0.245 | 0.059 | 0.432 | 0.010 | 0.203 | 0.012 | 0.394 | 0.037 | 0.228 | 0.042 | 0.414 | 0.016 |
Buddhism | 0.289 | 0.176 | 0.402 | <0.001 | 0.275 | 0.162 | 0.388 | <0.001 | 0.282 | 0.170 | 0.394 | <0.001 |
Hinduism | 0.543 | 0.430 | 0.656 | <0.001 | 0.399 | 0.215 | 0.583 | <0.001 | 0.361 | 0.182 | 0.540 | <0.001 |
Islam | 0.681 | 0.581 | 0.782 | <0.001 | 0.608 | 0.413 | 0.803 | <0.001 | 0.587 | 0.391 | 0.782 | <0.001 |
Sikhism | 0.653 | 0.466 | 0.839 | <0.001 | 0.509 | 0.280 | 0.739 | <0.001 | 0.477 | 0.253 | 0.700 | <0.001 |
No religion | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Total positive mental health @ | ||||||||||||
Christianity | 0.099 | −0.012 | 0.211 | 0.079 | 0.062 | −0.052 | 0.177 | 0.287 | 0.058 | −0.056 | 0.171 | 0.321 |
Taoism | 0.098 | −0.081 | 0.277 | 0.284 | 0.064 | −0.12 | 0.247 | 0.498 | 0.079 | −0.099 | 0.258 | 0.384 |
Buddhism | 0.149 | 0.04 | 0.257 | 0.007 | 0.132 | 0.023 | 0.24 | 0.017 | 0.139 | 0.032 | 0.247 | 0.011 |
Hinduism | 0.217 | 0.111 | 0.322 | <0.001 | 0.104 | −0.06 | 0.268 | 0.215 | 0.072 | −0.089 | 0.233 | 0.379 |
Islam | 0.261 | 0.165 | 0.357 | <0.001 | 0.214 | 0.041 | 0.388 | 0.016 | 0.2 | 0.028 | 0.372 | 0.022 |
Sikhism | 0.341 | 0.171 | 0.512 | <0.001 | 0.23 | 0.024 | 0.436 | 0.029 | 0.215 | 0.008 | 0.422 | 0.042 |
No religion | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
General coping | ||||||||||||
Christianity | 0.188 | 0.030 | 0.346 | 0.020 | 0.165 | 0.002 | 0.329 | 0.047 | 0.138 | −0.026 | 0.302 | 0.099 |
Taoism | 0.286 | 0.030 | 0.542 | 0.029 | 0.224 | −0.041 | 0.488 | 0.097 | 0.258 | 0.013 | 0.502 | 0.039 |
Buddhism | 0.238 | 0.085 | 0.391 | 0.002 | 0.213 | 0.062 | 0.365 | 0.006 | 0.209 | 0.058 | 0.360 | 0.007 |
Hinduism | 0.153 | −0.009 | 0.315 | 0.064 | 0.098 | −0.160 | 0.357 | 0.455 | 0.034 | −0.216 | 0.283 | 0.792 |
Islam | 0.361 | 0.219 | 0.504 | <0.001 | 0.404 | 0.121 | 0.686 | 0.005 | 0.339 | 0.063 | 0.615 | 0.016 |
Sikhism | 0.327 | 0.019 | 0.634 | 0.037 | 0.29 | −0.075 | 0.654 | 0.119 | 0.280 | −0.054 | 0.614 | 0.101 |
No religion | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Emotional support | ||||||||||||
Christianity | 0.235 | 0.063 | 0.408 | 0.008 | 0.228 | 0.049 | 0.407 | 0.013 | 0.192 | 0.023 | 0.362 | 0.026 |
Taoism | 0.117 | −0.189 | 0.423 | 0.454 | 0.131 | −0.170 | 0.432 | 0.392 | 0.139 | −0.159 | 0.437 | 0.361 |
Buddhism | 0.253 | 0.088 | 0.417 | 0.003 | 0.257 | 0.090 | 0.423 | 0.003 | 0.268 | 0.109 | 0.427 | 0.001 |
Hinduism | 0.281 | 0.113 | 0.449 | 0.001 | 0.233 | −0.007 | 0.472 | 0.057 | 0.178 | −0.059 | 0.416 | 0.140 |
Islam | 0.410 | 0.261 | 0.558 | <0.001 | 0.375 | 0.141 | 0.609 | 0.002 | 0.361 | 0.118 | 0.605 | 0.004 |
Sikhism | 0.579 | 0.326 | 0.832 | <0.001 | 0.531 | 0.215 | 0.847 | 0.001 | 0.468 | 0.137 | 0.799 | 0.006 |
No religion | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Spirituality | ||||||||||||
Christianity | 2.648 | 2.423 | 2.873 | <0.001 | 2.552 | 2.315 | 2.789 | <0.001 | 2.575 | 2.345 | 2.806 | <0.001 |
Taoism | 0.880 | 0.464 | 1.295 | <0.001 | 0.787 | 0.369 | 1.205 | <0.001 | 0.869 | 0.451 | 1.287 | <0.001 |
Buddhism | 0.992 | 0.767 | 1.216 | <0.001 | 0.964 | 0.744 | 1.185 | <0.001 | 1.001 | 0.776 | 1.226 | <0.001 |
Hinduism | 2.282 | 2.069 | 2.495 | <0.001 | 1.924 | 1.579 | 2.269 | <0.001 | 1.949 | 1.604 | 2.295 | <0.001 |
Islam | 2.929 | 2.748 | 3.110 | <0.001 | 2.647 | 2.279 | 3.015 | <0.001 | 2.676 | 2.295 | 3.057 | <0.001 |
Sikhism | 2.268 | 1.699 | 2.837 | <0.001 | 1.913 | 1.275 | 2.55 | <0.001 | 1.888 | 1.244 | 2.532 | <0.001 |
No religion | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Interpersonal skills | ||||||||||||
Christianity | 0.113 | −0.026 | 0.251 | 0.110 | 0.097 | −0.047 | 0.241 | 0.187 | 0.082 | −0.063 | 0.226 | 0.268 |
Taoism | 0.086 | −0.141 | 0.312 | 0.459 | 0.066 | −0.163 | 0.296 | 0.571 | 0.069 | −0.159 | 0.297 | 0.552 |
Buddhism | 0.165 | 0.031 | 0.298 | 0.016 | 0.163 | 0.029 | 0.297 | 0.017 | 0.154 | 0.018 | 0.29 | 0.026 |
Hinduism | 0.294 | 0.166 | 0.422 | <0.001 | 0.247 | 0.033 | 0.461 | 0.024 | 0.214 | 0.001 | 0.425 | 0.044 |
Islam | 0.299 | 0.178 | 0.421 | <0.001 | 0.348 | 0.111 | 0.585 | 0.004 | 0.311 | 0.075 | 0.546 | 0.010 |
Sikhism | 0.410 | 0.169 | 0.652 | 0.001 | 0.336 | 0.04 | 0.632 | 0.026 | 0.340 | 0.051 | 0.63 | 0.021 |
No religion | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Personal growth and autonomy | ||||||||||||
Christianity | −0.038 | −0.187 | 0.111 | 0.621 | −0.105 | −0.260 | 0.05 | 0.185 | −0.102 | −0.252 | 0.048 | 0.182 |
Taoism | −0.025 | −0.248 | 0.199 | 0.830 | −0.091 | −0.315 | 0.133 | 0.427 | −0.074 | −0.295 | 0.148 | 0.514 |
Buddhism | 0.055 | −0.088 | 0.199 | 0.448 | 0.029 | −0.113 | 0.172 | 0.687 | 0.043 | −0.097 | 0.184 | 0.545 |
Hinduism | 0.267 | 0.130 | 0.404 | <0.001 | −0.022 | −0.235 | 0.191 | 0.838 | −0.057 | −0.260 | 0.146 | 0.582 |
Islam | 0.161 | 0.035 | 0.287 | 0.012 | −0.034 | −0.252 | 0.184 | 0.761 | −0.038 | −0.247 | 0.171 | 0.720 |
Sikhism | 0.297 | 0.045 | 0.549 | 0.021 | 0.026 | −0.269 | 0.322 | 0.862 | −0.026 | −0.318 | 0.266 | 0.861 |
No religion | Ref | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Global affect | ||||||||||||
Christianity | 0.145 | −0.014 | 0.303 | 0.073 | 0.115 | −0.049 | 0.279 | 0.168 | 0.100 | −0.063 | 0.264 | 0.228 |
Taoism | 0.290 | 0.004 | 0.577 | 0.047 | 0.283 | −0.004 | 0.571 | 0.053 | 0.294 | −0.006 | 0.594 | 0.055 |
Buddhism | 0.139 | −0.016 | 0.295 | 0.079 | 0.141 | −0.015 | 0.297 | 0.077 | 0.134 | −0.022 | 0.289 | 0.092 |
Hinduism | 0.176 | 0.022 | 0.331 | 0.025 | 0.157 | −0.112 | 0.426 | 0.254 | 0.087 | −0.176 | 0.350 | 0.517 |
Islam | 0.219 | 0.080 | 0.358 | 0.002 | 0.202 | −0.106 | 0.510 | 0.199 | 0.169 | −0.141 | 0.478 | 0.285 |
Sikhism | 0.231 | −0.037 | 0.500 | 0.091 | 0.187 | −0.178 | 0.552 | 0.315 | 0.117 | −0.249 | 0.484 | 0.530 |
No religion | Ref | Ref | Ref |
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Vaingankar, J.A.; Choudhary, N.; Chong, S.A.; Kumar, F.D.S.; Abdin, E.; Shafie, S.; Chua, B.Y.; van Dam, R.M.; Subramaniam, M. Religious Affiliation in Relation to Positive Mental Health and Mental Disorders in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3368. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073368
Vaingankar JA, Choudhary N, Chong SA, Kumar FDS, Abdin E, Shafie S, Chua BY, van Dam RM, Subramaniam M. Religious Affiliation in Relation to Positive Mental Health and Mental Disorders in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(7):3368. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073368
Chicago/Turabian StyleVaingankar, Janhavi Ajit, Niyanta Choudhary, Siow Ann Chong, Fiona Devi Siva Kumar, Edimansyah Abdin, Saleha Shafie, Boon Yiang Chua, Rob M. van Dam, and Mythily Subramaniam. 2021. "Religious Affiliation in Relation to Positive Mental Health and Mental Disorders in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 7: 3368. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073368
APA StyleVaingankar, J. A., Choudhary, N., Chong, S. A., Kumar, F. D. S., Abdin, E., Shafie, S., Chua, B. Y., van Dam, R. M., & Subramaniam, M. (2021). Religious Affiliation in Relation to Positive Mental Health and Mental Disorders in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(7), 3368. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073368