Deliberate Practice, Functional Performance and Psychological Characteristics in Young Basketball Players: A Bayesian Multilevel Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Chronological Age and Anthropometry
2.3. Maturity Status
2.4. Basketball Deliberate Practice
2.5. Functional Performance
2.6. Psychological Measures
2.7. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Côté, J.; Murphy-Mills, J.; Abernethy, B. The development of skill in sport. In Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice, 2nd ed.; Hodges, N.J., Williams, A.M., Eds.; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2012; pp. 295–312. [Google Scholar]
- Gonçalves, C.E.; Rama, L.M.; Figueiredo, A.J. Talent identification and specialization in sport: An overview of some unanswered questions. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2012, 7, 390–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brylinsky, J. Practice Makes Perfect and Other Curricular Myths in the Sport Specialization Debate. J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Danc. 2010, 81, 22–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ericsson, K.A.; Krampe, R.T.; Tesch-Römer, C. The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychol. Rev. 1993, 100, 363–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Armstrong, N. Development of the Youth Athlete; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2019; p. 250. [Google Scholar]
- Hornig, M.; Aust, F.; Güllich, A. Practice and play in the development of German top-level professional football players. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2016, 16, 96–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hill, G.M.; Simons, J. A Study of the Sport Specialization on High School Athletics. J. Sport Soc. Issues 1989, 13, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gould, D. Early Sport Specialization. J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Danc. 2010, 81, 33–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jayanthi, N.A.; LaBella, C.R.; Fischer, D.; Pasulka, J.; Dugas, L.R. Sports-Specialized Intensive Training and the Risk of Injury in Young Athletes:A Clinical Case–Control Study. Am. J. Sports Med. 2015, 43, 794–801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DiFiori, J.P.; Benjamin, H.J.; Brenner, J.S.; Gregory, A.; Jayanthi, N.; Landry, G.L.; Luke, A. Overuse injuries and burnout in youth sports: A position statement from the American Medical Society for Sports Medicine. Br. J. Sports Med. 2014, 48, 287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- DiSanti, J.S.; Erickson, K. Youth sport specialization: A multidisciplinary scoping systematic review. J. Sports Sci. 2019, 37, 2094–2105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, J.; Cobley, S.; Fraser-Thomas, J. What do we know about early sport specialization? Not much! High Abil. Stud. 2009, 20, 77–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moseid, C.H.; Myklebust, G.; Fagerland, M.W.; Bahr, R. The association between early specialization and performance level with injury and illness risk in youth elite athletes. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2019, 29, 460–468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bell, D.R.; Post, E.G.; Biese, K.; Bay, C.; Valovich McLeod, T. Sport Specialization and Risk of Overuse Injuries: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2018, 142, e20180657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fabricant, P.D.; Lakomkin, N.; Sugimoto, D.; Tepolt, F.A.; Stracciolini, A.; Kocher, M.S. Youth sports specialization and musculoskeletal injury: A systematic review of the literature. Phys. Sportsmed. 2016, 44, 257–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brenner, J.S. Sports Specialization and Intensive Training in Young Athletes. Pediatrics 2016, 138, e20162148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Myer, G.D.; Jayanthi, N.; Difiori, J.P.; Faigenbaum, A.D.; Kiefer, A.W.; Logerstedt, D.; Micheli, L.J. Sport Specialization, Part I: Does Early Sports Specialization Increase Negative Outcomes and Reduce the Opportunity for Success in Young Athletes? Sports Health 2015, 7, 437–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fraser-Thomas, J.; Côté, J.; Deakin, J. Understanding dropout and prolonged engagement in adolescent competitive sport. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2008, 9, 645–662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Heather, K.L.; Bradley, W.Y.; Tara-Leigh, F.M.; Wendy, M.R. Markers of Early Specialization and Their Relationships With Burnout and Dropout in Swimming. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2019, 41, 46–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Post, E.G.; Biese, K.M.; Schaefer, D.A.; Watson, A.M.; McGuine, T.A.; Brooks, M.A.; Bell, D.R. Sport-Specific Associations of Specialization and Sex With Overuse Injury in Youth Athletes. Sports Health 2019, 12, 36–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jayanthi, N.A.; Post, E.G.; Laury, T.C.; Fabricant, P.D. Health Consequences of Youth Sport Specialization. J. Athl. Train. 2019, 54, 1040–1049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Baker, J. Early specialization in youth sport: A requirement for adult expertise? High Abil. Stud. 2003, 14, 85–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, A.D.; Alleyne, J.M.K.; Pitsiladis, Y.; Schneider, C.; Kenihan, M.; Constantinou, D.; Webborn, N. Early Sports Specialization: An International Perspective. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2017, 16, 439–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Association of Basketball Coaches. Coaches Manual: Mini-Basketball; FIBA-WABC: Mies, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Drinkwater, E.J.; Pyne, D.B.; McKenna, M.J. Design and interpretation of anthropometric and fitness testing of basketball players. Sports Med. 2008, 38, 565–578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Soares, A.L.A.; Leonardi, T.J.; Silva, J.; Nascimento, J.V.; Pes, R.R.; Gonçalves, C.E.; Carvalho, H.M. Performance, motivation and enjoyment in young female basketball players: An interdisciplinary approach. J. Sports Sci. 2020, 38, 873–885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carvalho, H.M.; Silva, M.; Figueiredo, A.J.; Gonçalves, C.E.; Philippaerts, R.M.; Castagna, C.; Malina, R.M. Predictors of maximal short-term power outputs in basketball players 14–16 years. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2011, 111, 789–796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Bruin, A.B.; Smits, N.; Rikers, R.M.; Schmidt, H.G. Deliberate practice predicts performance over time in adolescent chess players and drop-outs: A linear mixed models analysis. Br. J. Psychol. 2008, 99, 473–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- de Bruin, A.B.; Rikers, R.M.; Schmidt, H.G. The influence of achievement motivation and chess-specific motivation on deliberate practice. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2007, 29, 561–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gonçalves, C.E.; Silva, M.; Carvalho, H.M.; Gonçalves, A. Why do they engage in such hard programs? The search for excellence in youth basketball. J. Sports Sci. Med. 2011, 10, 458–464. [Google Scholar]
- Elferink-Gemser, M.T.; Visscher, C.; Lemmink, K.A.; Mulder, T. Multidimensional performance characteristics and standard of performance in talented youth field hockey players: A longitudinal study. J. Sports Sci. 2007, 25, 481–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soares, A.L.A.; Kós, L.D.; Pes, R.R.; Nascimento, J.V.; Collins, D.; Gonçalves, C.E.; Carvalho, H.M. Determinants of drop-out in youth basketball: An interdisciplinary approach. Res. Sports Med. 2020, 28, 84–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MacDonald, D.J.; Côté, J.; Eys, M.; Deakin, J. The Role of Enjoyment and Motivational Climate in Relation to the Personal Development of Team Sport Athletes. Sport Psychol. 2011, 25, 32–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Scanlan, T.K.; Lewthwaite, R. Social psychological aspects of competition for male youth sport participants: IV. Predictors of enjoyment. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 1986, 8, 25–35. [Google Scholar]
- Wiersma, L.D. Conceptualization and Development of the sources of enjoyment in youth sport questionnaire. Meas. Phys. Educ. Exerc. Sci. 2001, 5, 153–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scanlan, T.K.; Carpenter, P.J.; Lobel, M.; Simons, J.P. Sources of Enjoyment for Youth Sport Athletes. Pediatric Exerc. Sci. 1993, 5, 275–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boyd, M.P.; Yin, Z. Cognitive-affective sources of sport enjoyment in adolescent sport participants. Adolescence 1996, 31, 383–395. [Google Scholar]
- Coakley, J. The “Logic” of Specialization. J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Danc. 2010, 81, 16–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Capranica, L.; Millard-Stafford, M. Youth sport specialization: How to manage competition and training? Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2011, 6, 572–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malina, R.M.; Bouchard, C.; Beunen, G. Human Growth: Selected Aspects of Current Research on Well-Nourished Children. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 1988, 17, 187–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, D.R.; Rast, P.; Bürkner, P. Bayesian meta-analysis with weakly informative prior distributions. PsyArXiv 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reilly, T.; Williams, A.M.; Nevill, A.; Franks, A. A multidisciplinary approach to talent identification in soccer. J. Sports Sci. 2000, 18, 695–702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carvalho, H.M.; Gonçalves, C.E.; Collins, D.; Pes, R.R. Growth, functional capacities and motivation for achievement and competitiveness in youth basketball: An interdisciplinary approach. J. Sports Sci. 2018, 36, 742–748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gelman, A.; Hill, J. Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Gelman, A.; Carlin, J.B.; Stern, H.S.; Dunson, D.B.; Vehtari, A.; Rubin, D.B. Bayesian Data Analysis, 3rd ed.; Chapman Hall/CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, M.D.; Wagenmakers, E.-J. Bayesian Cognitive Modeling: A Practical Course; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Kennedy, L.; Gelman, A. Know your population and know your model: Using model-based regression and poststratification to generalize findings beyond the observed sample. arXiv 2019, arXiv:1906.11323. [Google Scholar]
- Moore, S.A.; McKay, H.A.; Macdonald, H.; Nettlefold, L.; Baxter-Jones, A.D.; Cameron, N.; Brasher, P.M. Enhancing a Somatic Maturity Prediction Model. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2015, 47, 1755–1764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thomis, M.; Clessens, A.L.; Lefevre, J.; Philippaerts, R.; Beunen, G.P.; Malina, R.M. Adolescent growth spurts in female gymnasts. J. Pediatrics 2005, 146, 239–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Malina, R.M.; Clessens, A.L.; Van Aken, K.; Thomis, M.; Lefevre, J.; Philippaerts, R.; Beunen, G.P. Maturity offset in gymnasts: Application of a prediction equation. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2006, 38, 1342–1347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bosco, C.; Luhtanen, P.; Komi, P.V. A simple method for measurement of mechanical power in jumping. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 1983, 50, 273–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carvalho, H.M.; Gonçalves, C.E.; Grosgeorge, B.; Pes, R.R. Validity and usefulness of the Line Drill test for adolescent basketball players: A Bayesian multilevel analysis. Res. Sports Med. 2017, 25, 333–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Semenick, D. Tests and measurements: The Line Drill Test. Strength Cond. J. 1990, 12, 47–49. [Google Scholar]
- Bangsbo, J. Fitness Training in Footbal—A Scientific Approach; HO Storm: Bangsvaerd, Denmark, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Carvalho, H.M.; Leonardi, T.J.; Soares, A.L.A.; Pes, R.R.; Foster, C.; Gonçalves, C.E. Longitudinal changes of functional capacities among adolescent female basketball players. Front. Physiol. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Helmreich, R.L.; Beane, W.; Lucker, G.W.; Spence, J.T. Achievement Motivation and Scientific Attainment. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 1978, 4, 222–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santos, A.J.; Gonçalves, C.E. Tradução do sources of enjoyment in youth sport questionnaire e do Developmental Assets Profile para Jovens Atletas Portugueses. Ann. Res. Sport Phys. Act. 2012, 3, 11–36. [Google Scholar]
- R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Bürkner, P.-C. brms: An R Package for Bayesian Multilevel Models using Stan. J. Stat. Softw. 2017, 80, 1–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Carpenter, B.; Gelman, A.; Hoffman, M.D.; Lee, D.; Goodrich, B.; Betancourt, M.; Brubaker, M.; Guo, J.; Li, P.; Riddell, A. Stan: A probabilistic programming language. J. Stat. Softw. 2017, 76, 1–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Leonardi, T.J.; Pes, R.R.; Breder, L.; Foster, C.; Gonçalves, C.E.; Carvalho, H.M. Biologic maturation, training experience, body size and functional capacity of adolescent female basketball players: A Bayesian analysis. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 2018, 13, 713–722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, J.; Schorer, J.; Wattie, N. Compromising Talent: Issues in Identifying and Selecting Talent in Sport. Quest 2018, 70, 48–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ford, P.R.; Ward, P.; Hodges, N.J.; Williams, A.M. The role of deliberate practice and play in career progression in sport: The early engagement hypothesis. High Abil. Stud. 2009, 20, 65–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Forsman, H.; Blomqvist, M.; Davids, K.; Konttinen, N.; Liukkonen, J. The role of sport-specific play and practice during childhood in the development of adolescent Finnish team sport athletes. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 2016, 11, 69–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Güllich, A. Selection, de-selection and progression in German football talent promotion. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2014, 14, 530–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaleth, A.S.; Mikesky, A.E. Impact of Early Sport Specialization. J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Danc. 2010, 81, 29–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malina, R.M.; Bouchard, C.; Bar-Or, O. Growth, Maturation and Physical Activity, 2nd ed.; Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Danish, S.; Forneris, T.; Hodge, K.; Heke, I. Enhancing Youth Development Through Sport. World Leis. J. 2004, 46, 38–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, J.; Young, B. 20 years later: Deliberate practice and the development of expertise in sport. Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2014, 7, 135–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Güllich, A. Sport-specific and non-specific practice of strong and weak responders in junior and senior elite athletics—A matched-pairs analysis. J. Sports Sci. 2018, 36, 2256–2264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
All Sample | Female | Male | |
---|---|---|---|
(n = 321) | (n = 120) | (n = 201) | |
Chronological age, years | 14.1 (13.6 to 14.6) | 14.2 (14.0 to 14.4) | 13.9 (13.8 to 14.1) |
Maturity offset, years | 1.46 (0.44 to 2.46) | 2.17 (1.99 to 2.35) | 0.71 (0.57 to 0.84) |
Onset of deliberate basketball practice, years | 10.4 (9.6 to 11.1) | 10.1 (9.8 to 10.4) | 10.6 (10.4 to 10.9) |
Stature, cm | 168.1 (165.9 to 170.3) | 165.0 (163.0 to 166.0) | 171.0 (170.0 to 172.0) |
Body mass, kg | 63.2 (61.1 to 65.3) | 60.5 (58.7 to 62.3) | 65.9 (64.6 to 67.3) |
Countermovement jump, cm | 28.7 (26.8 to 30.6) | 25.8 (25.1 to 26.4) | 31.5 (31.0 to 32.1) |
Line drill test, s | 34.7 (33.7 to 35.7) | 35.4 (35.1 to 35.7) | 34.0 (33.7 to 34.3) |
Yo-yo IR1, m | 673 (391 to 956) | 543 (497 to 590) | 815 (781 to 851) |
Deliberate Practice Motivation | |||
Will to excel, 1–5 | 4.09 (3.59 to 4.59) | 3.88 (3.78 to 3.98) | 4.27 (4.20 to 4.35) |
Will to compete, 1–5 | 4.31 (3.96 to 4.63) | 4.25 (4.18 to 4.33) | 4.41 (4.36 to 4.47) |
Achievement and Competitiveness Motivation | |||
Mastery, 1–5 | 4.14 (3.74 to 4.52) | 4.06 (3.99 to 4.13) | 4.27 (4.21 to 4.32) |
Work, 1–5 | 4.36 (3.94 to 4.74) | 4.27 (4.21 to 4.33) | 4.54 (4.49 to 4.59) |
Competitiveness, 1–5 | 3.76 (3.40 to 4.19) | 3.58 (3.50 to 3.67) | 3.84 (3.77 to 3.90) |
Sources of Enjoyments in Youth Sports | |||
Self-referenced competencies, 1–5 | 4.41 (4.07 to 4.71) | 4.38 (4.31 to 4.45) | 4.53 (4.48 to 4.58) |
Others-referenced competencies, 1–5 | 3.79 (3.43 to 4.19) | 3.63 (3.51 to 3.74) | 3.84 (3.76 to 3.92) |
Effort expenditure, 1–5 | 4.69 (4.45 to 4.87) | 4.73 (4.68 to 4.79) | 4.72 (4.68 to 4.76) |
Affiliation with peers, 1–5 | 4.45 (4.21 to 4.66) | 4.46 (4.39 to 4.54) | 4.48 (4.43 to 4.54) |
Positive parental involvement, 1–5 | 4.35 (4.04 to 4.63) | 4.45 (4.36 to 4.55) | 4.35 (4.28 to 4.42) |
Onset of Deliberate Basketball Practice | |||
---|---|---|---|
Early Starters | Starters during pubertal growth | Late starters | |
Stature, cm | 153.3 (151.0 to 155.6) | 153.2 (151.0 to 166.0) | 153.6 (151.1 to 156.1) |
Body mass, kg | 55.0 (51.4 to 58.6) | 54.2 (50.8 to 57.6) | 57.6 (53.6 to 61.6) |
Countermovement jump, cm | 24.1 (22.0 to 26.2) | 23.8 (21.8 to 25.8) | 22.3 (20.0 to 24.6) |
Line drill test, s | 35.5 (34.5 to 36.4) | 36.6 (35.7 to 37.5) | 36.9 (35.9 to 37.8) |
Yo-yo IR1, m | 402.3 (274.2 to 529.8) | 378.9 (261.8 to 497.4) | 342.8 (208.0 to 478.2) |
Deliberate Practice Motivation | |||
Will to excel, 1–5 | 3.89 (3.65 to 4.12) | 3.77 (3.54 to 3.99) | 3.89 (3.64 to 4.13) |
Will to compete, 1–5 | 4.20 (4.03 to 4.36) | 4.24 (4.08 to 4.40) | 4.23 (4.05 to 4.40) |
Achievement and Competitiveness Motivation | |||
Mastery, 1–5 | 4.07 (3.91 to 4.22) | 4.04 (3.89 to 4.19) | 4.04 (3.87 to 4.20) |
Work, 1–5 | 4.23 (4.06 to 4.39) | 4.26 (4.10 to 4.41) | 4.27 (4.10 to 4.43) |
Competitiveness, 1–5 | 3.53 (3.28 to 3.79) | 3.43 (3.18 to 3.67) | 3.43 (3.17 to 3.69) |
Sources of Enjoyments in Youth Sports | |||
Self-referenced competencies, 1–5 | 4.30 (4.14 to 4.46) | 4.33 (4.18 to 4.54) | 4.37 (4.19 to 4.54) |
Others-referenced competencies, 1–5 | 3.47 (3.17 to 4.77) | 3.42 (3.13 to 3.70) | 3.33 (3.01 to 3.64) |
Effort expenditure, 1–5 | 4.69 (4.54 to 4.82) | 4.72 (4.57 to 4.86) | 4.70 (4.54 to 4.85) |
Affiliation with peers, 1–5 | 4.60 (4.41 to 4.79) | 4.59 (4.41 to 4.77) | 4.48 (4.26 to 4.69) |
Positive parental involvement, 1–5 | 4.53 (4.31 to 4.72) | 4.51 (4.31 to 4.72) | 4.39 (4.13 to 4.63) |
Onset of Deliberate Basketball Practice | |||
---|---|---|---|
Early starters | Starters during pubertal growth | Late starters | |
Stature, cm | 167.2 (165.3 to 169.2) | 168.9 (166.9 to 171.1) | 167.9 (165.4 to 170.4) |
Body mass, kg | 66.7 (63.6 to 69.8) | 66.4 (63.2 to 69.7) | 68.1 (64.1 to 72.1) |
Countermovement jump, cm | 30.6 (28.8 to 32.5) | 30.6 (28.6 to 32.5) | 32.6 (30.1 to 35.1) |
Line drill test, s | 34.6 (33.8 to 35.4) | 34.4 (33.6 to 35.2) | 33.7 (32.7 to 34.8) |
Yo-yo IR1, m | 687.3 (583.7 to 794.1) | 772.5 (663.0 to 884.6) | 1142.1 (989.8.0 to 1294.0) |
Deliberate Practice Motivation | |||
Will to excel, 1–5 | 4.31 (4.11 to 4.52) | 4.19 (3.97 to 4.42) | 4.31 (4.07 to 4.56) |
Will to compete, 1–5 | 4.32 (4.17 to 4.47) | 4.37 (4.20 to 4.52) | 4.35 (4.18 to 4.51) |
Achievement and Competitiveness Motivation | |||
Mastery, 1–5 | 4.29 (4.15 to 4.42) | 4.27 (4.12 to 4.41) | 4.26 (4.10 to 4.41) |
Work, 1–5 | 4.40 (4.26 to 4.55) | 4.43 (4.28 to 4.58) | 4.44 (4.28 to 4.60) |
Competitiveness, 1–5 | 3.84 (3.62 to 4.07) | 3.74 (3.50 to 3.97) | 3.74 (3.48 to 3.99) |
Sources of Enjoyments in Youth Sports | |||
Self-referenced competencies, 1–5 | 4.27 (4.12 to 4.42) | 4.30 (4.15 to 4.45) | 4.34 (4.17 to 4.52) |
Others-referenced competencies, 1–5 | 3.94 (3.66 to 4.20) | 3.88 (3.60 to 4.15) | 3.79 (3.46 to 4.10) |
Effort expenditure, 1–5 | 4.70 (4.56 to 4.83) | 4.73 (4.60 to 4.87) | 4.71 (4.56 to 4.86) |
Affiliation with peers, 1–5 | 4.50 (4.34 to 4.67) | 4.49 (4.31 to 4.66) | 4.38 (4.16 to 4.59) |
Positive parental involvement, 1–5 | 4.41 (4.22 to 4.60) | 4.39 (4.20 to 4.59) | 4.27 (4.01 to 4.51) |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lima, A.B.; Nascimento, J.V.; Leonardi, T.J.; Soares, A.L.; Paes, R.R.; Gonçalves, C.E.; Carvalho, H.M. Deliberate Practice, Functional Performance and Psychological Characteristics in Young Basketball Players: A Bayesian Multilevel Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 4078. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17114078
Lima AB, Nascimento JV, Leonardi TJ, Soares AL, Paes RR, Gonçalves CE, Carvalho HM. Deliberate Practice, Functional Performance and Psychological Characteristics in Young Basketball Players: A Bayesian Multilevel Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(11):4078. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17114078
Chicago/Turabian StyleLima, Ahlan B., Juarez V. Nascimento, Thiago J. Leonardi, André L. Soares, Roberto R. Paes, Carlos E. Gonçalves, and Humberto M. Carvalho. 2020. "Deliberate Practice, Functional Performance and Psychological Characteristics in Young Basketball Players: A Bayesian Multilevel Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 11: 4078. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17114078