Search Results (1,087)

Endotoxins, lipopolysaccharides released from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, pose a significant risk in healthcare environments, particularly in Central Sterile Supply Departments (CSSDs), where the delivery of sterile pyrogen-free medical devices is critical for patient safety. Traditional methods for controlling endotoxins in water systems, such as ultraviolet (UV) disinfection, have proven ineffective at reducing endotoxin concentrations to comply with regulatory standards (<0.25 EU/mL). This limitation presents a significant challenge, especially in the context of reverse osmosis (RO) permeate used in CSSDs, where water typically has very low conductivity. Despite the established importance of endotoxin removal, a gap in the literature exists regarding effective chemical-free methods that can meet the stringent endotoxin limits in such low-conductivity environments. This study addresses this gap by evaluating the effectiveness of the eBooster™ electrochemical technology—featuring proprietary electrode materials and a reactor design optimized for potable water—for endotoxin removal from water, specifically under the low-conductivity conditions typical of RO permeate. Laboratory experiments using the B250 reactor achieved >90% endotoxin reduction (from 1.2 EU/mL to <0.1 EU/mL) at flow rates ≤5 L/min and current densities of 0.45–2.7 mA/cm². Additional real-world testing at three hospitals showed that the eBooster™ unit, when installed in the RO tank recirculation loop, consistently reduced endotoxin levels from 0.76 EU/mL (with UV) to <0.05 EU/mL over 24 months of operation, while heterotrophic plate counts dropped from 190 to <1 CFU/100 mL. Statistical analysis confirmed the reproducibility and flow-rate dependence of the removal efficiency. Limitations observed included reduced efficacy at higher flow rates, the need for sufficient residence time, and a temporary performance decline after two years due to a power fault, which was promptly corrected. Compared to earlier approaches, eBooster™ demonstrated superior performance in low-conductivity environments without added chemicals or significant maintenance. These findings highlight the strength and novelty of eBooster™ as a reliable, chemical-free, and maintenance-friendly alternative to traditional UV disinfection systems, offering a promising solution for critical water treatment applications in healthcare environments. Full article

The quality of water in households can be affected by plumbing design and materials, water usage patterns, and source water quality characteristics. These factors influence stagnation duration, disinfection residuals, metal release, and microbial activity. In particular, stagnation can degrade water quality and increase lead release from lead service lines. This study employs numerical modeling to assess how combined corrosion control and flushing strategies affect lead levels in household taps with lead service lines under reduced water use. To estimate potential health risks, the U.S. EPA model is used to predict the percentage of children likely to exceed safe blood lead levels. Lead exceedances are assessed based on various regulatory requirements. Results show that exceedances at the kitchen tap range from 3 to 74% of usage time for the 5 µg/L standard, and from 0 to 49% for the 10 µg/L threshold, across different scenarios. Implementing corrosion control treatment in combination with periodic flushing proves effective in lowering lead levels under the studied low-consumption scenarios. Under these conditions, the combined strategy limits lead exceedances above 5 µg/L to only 3% of usage time, with none above 10 µg/L. This demonstrates its value as a practical short-term strategy for households awaiting full pipe replacement. Targeted flushing before peak water use reduces the median time that water remains stagnant in household pipes from 8 to 3 h at the kitchen tap under low-demand conditions. Finally, the risk model indicates that the combined approach can reduce the predicted percentage of children with blood lead levels exceeding 5 μg/dL from 61 to 6% under low water demand. Full article

Biosecurity measures applied on poultry farms, with a recent history of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection, were monitored using 24 h/7 days-per-week video monitoring. Definition of biosecurity breaches were based on internationally acknowledged norms. Farms of four different production types (two broiler, two layer, two breeder broiler, and one duck farm) were selected. Observations of entry to and exit from the anteroom revealed a high degree of biosecurity breaches in six poultry farms and good biosecurity practices in one farm in strictly maintaining the separation between clean and potentially contaminated areas in the anteroom. Hand washing with soap and water and/or using disinfectant lotion was rarely observed at entry to the anteroom and was almost absent at exit. Egg transporters did not disinfect fork-lift wheels when entering the egg-storage room nor change or properly disinfect footwear. The egg-storage room was not cleaned and disinfected after egg transport by the farmer. Similarly, footwear and trolley wheels were not disinfected when introducing young broilers or ducklings to the poultry unit. Biosecurity breaches were observed when introducing bedding material in the duck farm. This study shows a need for an engaging awareness and training campaign for poultry farmers and their co-workers as well as for transporters to promote good biosecurity practices. Full article

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a planetary health emergency, driven not only by the clinical misuse of antibiotics but also by diverse environmental dissemination pathways. This review critically examines the role of environmental compartments—water, soil, and air—as dynamic reservoirs and transmission routes for antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and resistance genes (ARGs). Recent metagenomic, epidemiological, and mechanistic evidence demonstrates that anthropogenic pressures—including pharmaceutical effluents, agricultural runoff, untreated sewage, and airborne emissions—amplify resistance evolution and interspecies gene transfer via horizontal gene transfer mechanisms, biofilms, and mobile genetic elements. Importantly, it is not only highly polluted rivers such as the Ganges that contribute to the spread of AMR; even low concentrations of antibiotics and their metabolites, formed during or after treatment, can significantly promote the selection and dissemination of resistance. Environmental hotspots such as European agricultural soils and airborne particulate zones near wastewater treatment plants further illustrate the complexity and global scope of pollution-driven AMR. The synergistic roles of co-selective agents, including heavy metals, disinfectants, and microplastics, are highlighted for their impact in exacerbating resistance gene propagation across ecological and geographical boundaries. The efficacy and limitations of current mitigation strategies, including advanced wastewater treatments, thermophilic composting, biosensor-based surveillance, and emerging regulatory frameworks, are evaluated. By integrating a One Health perspective, this review underscores the imperative of including environmental considerations in global AMR containment policies and proposes a multidisciplinary roadmap to mitigate resistance spread across interconnected human, animal, and environmental domains. Full article

The advancement of non-thermal disinfection technologies represents a critical pathway for ensuring food safety, meeting environmental sustainability requirements, and meeting consumer preferences for clean-label products. This study systematically evaluated the combined preservation effect of ultrasonic-assisted slightly acidic electrolyzed water (US+SAEW) on mirror carp fillets during refrigeration. Results demonstrated that US+SAEW exhibited superior antimicrobial efficacy compared to individual US or SAEW, achieving reductions of 0.73, 0.74, and 0.79 log CFU/g in total viable counts (TVC), Aeromonas bacteria, and lactic acid bacteria counts compared to the control, respectively. Furthermore, the combined intervention significantly suppressed microbial proliferation throughout the refrigeration period while simultaneously delaying protein and lipid degradation/oxidation induced by spoilage bacteria, thereby inhibiting the formation of alkaline nitrogenous compounds. Consequently, lower levels of pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), protein carbonyl, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were observed in US+SAEW compared to the other treatments. Multimodal characterization through low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR), texture, and color analysis confirmed that US+SAEW effectively preserved quality characteristics, extending the shelf life of mirror carp fillets by four days. This study provides a novel non-thermal preservation strategy that combines microbial safety maintenance with quality retention, offering particular advantages for thermolabile food. Full article

Wastewater is a hotspot for the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AR); therefore, bacteriophages offer a promising biocontrol alternative to overcome the limitations of conventional disinfection. This study evaluated the efficacy of bacteriophages and cocktails for the biocontrol of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CR-Kp) (CG258 and ST307) and Escherichia coli producers of extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBL-Ec) (ST131) in simulated wastewater. A synthetic wastewater matrix was prepared in which bacterial viability and bacteriophage stability were assessed for 72 h. CR-Kp or ESBL-Ec strain were treated with individual bacteriophages or phage-cocktails (dosed in different ways) and bacterial loads were monitored for 54 h. The Klebsiella phages FKP3 and FKP14 eliminated 99% (−2.9 Log) of CR-Kp-CG258 at 54 h, and FKP10 reduced 99% (−2.15 Log) of the CR-Kp-ST307 strains. The Klebsiella phage-cocktail in a single dose reduced to 99.99% (−4.12 Log) of the CR-Kp-CG258 at 36 h. Coliphage FEC1 reduced to 2.12 Log (99%) of ESBL-Ec-bla_CTX-M-G9, and FEC2 and FEC4 reduced approximately 1 Log (90%) of ESBL-Ec-bla_CTX-M-G9 and bla_CTX-M-G1. The coliphage cocktail increased the reduction up to 2.2 Logarithms. This study provides evidence supporting the use of bacteriophage cocktails for the control of resistant bacteria in wastewater, a sustainable intervention to mitigate the spread of AR and support water reuse safety. Full article

Limited molecular data exist on zoonotic parasites Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Angus calves from Guizhou, China. This study constitutes the first molecular epidemiological survey of these pathogens in this region. 817 fecal samples from Angus calves across 7 intensive beef farms (Bijie City). Nested PCR methods targeting SSU rRNA (Cryptosporidium spp.), gp60 (Cryptosporidium bovis subtyping), bg/gdh/tpi (G. duodenalis), and ITS (E. bieneusi) coupled with DNA sequencing were employed. DNA sequences were analyzed against the NCBI. database. Statistical differences were assessed via a generalized linear mixed-effects model. Cryptosporidium spp. prevalence 23.5% (192/817; 95% CI 28.1–34.6%), with C. bovis predominating 89.6% (172/192; 95% CI 84.4–93.5%) and six subtypes (XXVIa-XXVIf). Highest infection in 4–8-week-olds 29.9% (143/479; 95% CI 25.8–34.1%) (p < 0.01). G. duodenalis: 31.3% (256/817; 95% CI 28.1–34.6%) positive, overwhelmingly assemblage E 97.6% (6/256; 95% CI 0.9–5.0%), zoonotic assemblage A was marginal 0.7% (6/817; 95% CI 0.3–1.6%). Farm-level variation exceeded 10-fold (e.g., Gantang: 55.0% (55/100; 95% CI 44.7–65.0%) vs. Tieshi: 4.9% (5/102; 95% CI 1.6–11.1%). E. bieneusi: prevalence 19.7% (161/817; 95% CI 17.0–22.6%), exclusively zoonotic genotypes BEB4: 49.7% (80/161; 95% CI 41.7–57.7%); I: 40.4% (65/161; 95% CI 32.7–48.4%). Strong diarrhea association (p < 0.01) and site-specific patterns (e.g., Guanyindong: 39.2%). While Giardia exhibited the highest prevalence (31.3%) with minimal zoonotic risk, Enterocytozoon—despite lower prevalence (19.7%)—posed the greatest public health threat due to exclusive circulation of human-pathogenic genotypes (BEB4/I) and significant diarrhea association, highlighting divergent control priorities for these enteric parasites in Guizhou calves. Management/Public health impact: Dominant zoonotic E. bieneusi genotypes (BEB4/I) necessitate: 1. Targeted treatment of 4–8-week-old Angus calves. 2. Manure biofermentation (≥55 °C, 3 days), and 3. UV-disinfection (≥1 mJ/cm²) for karst water to disrupt transmission in this high-humidity region. Full article

As a result of the catalytic decomposition of H₂O₂, hydroxyl radicals are produced. Hydroxyl radicals are strong oxidants and effectively inactivate bacteria, ensuring water disinfection without toxic chlorinated organic by-products. The kinetics of bacterial inactivation were studied in a laboratory-scale flow catalytic reactor. A granular cobalt ferrite catalyst was thoroughly characterized using XRD and XRF techniques, SEM with EDS, and Raman spectroscopy. At lower H₂O₂ concentrations, H₂O₂ decomposition follows first-order reaction kinetics. At higher H₂O₂ concentrations, the obtained kinetics lines suggest that the reaction order increases. The kinetics of bacterial inactivation in the developed flow reactor depends largely on the initial number of bacteria. The initial bacterial concentrations in laboratory tests were within the range typical of real river water. A regression model was developed that relates the degree of bacterial inactivation to the initial number of bacteria, the initial H₂O₂ concentration, and the contact time of water with the catalyst. Full article

The colonization of Legionella spp. in engineered water systems constitutes a major public health threat. In this study, a six-year environmental surveillance (2020–2025) of Legionella colonization in five different types of facilities in Crete, Greece is presented, including hotels, passenger ships, primary healthcare facilities, public hospitals, and private clinics. A total of 1081 water samples were collected and analyzed, and the overall positivity was calculated using culture-based methods. Only 16.46% of the samples exceeded the regulatory limit (>10³ CFU/L) in the total sample, with 44.59% overall Legionella positivity. Colonization by facility category showed the highest rates in primary healthcare facilities with 85.96%, followed by public hospitals (46.36%), passenger ships with 36.93%, hotels with 38.08%, and finally private clinics (21.42%). The association of environmental risk factors with Legionella positivity revealed a strong effect at hot water temperatures < 50 °C (RR = 2.05) and free chlorine residuals < 0.2 mg/L (RR = 2.22) (p < 0.0001). Serotyping analysis revealed the overall dominance of Serogroups 2–15 of L. pneumophila; nevertheless, Serogroup 1 was particularly prevalent in hospitals, passenger ships, and hotels. Based on these findings, the requirement for continuous environmental monitoring and risk management plans with preventive thermochemical controls tailored to each facility is highlighted. Finally, operational disruptions, such as those experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in primary care facilities and marine systems, require special attention. Full article

Nematodes are among the organisms found in treated water. While generally considered harmless to human health, under certain conditions, they may serve as vectors for pathogenic viruses and bacteria, posing potential risks. Conventional disinfection processes in water treatment can contribute to the inactivation or removal of nematodes, but their effectiveness varies. This study, conducted at a water treatment plant (WTP) in Mashhad, Iran, aimed to determine the optimal dose and contact time of sodium hypochlorite and ozone for enhancing nematode inactivation in the affected surface water. This research combined primary disinfection using sodium hypochlorite at the existing WTP with a pilot ozone injection system to evaluate their individual and combined effectiveness. The results show that sodium hypochlorite at a concentration of 2 mg/L achieved 68% nematode inactivation. At 2.0 mg/L, with a 20 min contact time, ozone disinfection resulted in 39% inactivation. However, the combined application of sodium hypochlorite and ozone significantly improved efficiency, reaching 92% nematode inactivation when sodium hypochlorite and ozone were applied at 2 mg/L and 3 mg/L, respectively, with a 20 min ozone contact time. These findings indicate that, among the disinfection methods examined, the combined use of sodium hypochlorite and ozone is the most effective approach for nematode inactivation in drinking water, offering a promising strategy for improving water quality and safety. Full article

Water is an essential resource for life; however, the quality of available water on the planet has been compromised due to various factors, including microbiological contamination. Objective: To analyze the global scientific production of microbiological water contamination using bibliometric methods. Method: A search for scientific articles was conducted using the advanced query function in the Web of Science™ database, specifically in its core collection, on 26 February 2025. Data from 2000 articles were analyzed using the Bibliometrix package in R (version 4.2.1) and the Biblioshiny application (version 2.0). Results: The evaluated articles were published between 1952 and 2025, with a peak in publications in 2022. The journal Water Research stood out as the most relevant, publishing 128 articles. The Egyptian Knowledge Bank was identified as the most productive institution, while China had the highest number of contributing authors. The most cited article received 475 citations. Additionally, KeyWords Plus™ highlighted the focus of the studies on ecological and biotechnological methods for contaminant removal, as well as the presence of waterborne pathogens and their inactivation methods. Conclusions: The results show a growing interest in the development of ecological and biotechnological methods for contaminant removal and pathogen inactivation in water. The integration of artificial intelligence with real-time monitoring systems emerges as a promising strategy for improving water quality management. These findings highlight the relevance of the topic for public health and health education. Full article

Hypochlorous acid (HClO) serves as a biological mediator and is widely utilized as a disinfectant in food processing and water treatment. However, excessive HClO residues in food and environmental water raise concerns due to the potential formation of carcinogenic chlorinated byproducts and disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Despite its importance, traditional methods for HClO detection often involve complex sample preparation, sophisticated instrumentation, and skilled operators. Herein, we report an aggregation-induced emission (AIE) small molecule fluorescent probe (NYV) that integrates colorimetric and ratiometric fluorescence responses for the detection of HClO. This probe exhibits high sensitivity, with a detection limit of 0.35 $\mathsf{\mu }$M, a rapid response time of 1 min, and a wide linear range (0–142.5 $\mathsf{\mu }$M), along with anti-interference capabilities, making it suitable for real-time monitoring. Furthermore, we have developed a portable solid-state sensor based on probe NYV for the rapid visual detection of HClO. The potential applications of this probe in real sample analysis and bioimaging experiments are demonstrated. Our findings contribute to the development of innovative fluorescent probes for HClO detection, with broad applications in food safety, environmental monitoring, and biomedical research on oxidative stress and ferroptosis. Full article

Trihalomethanes (THMs) are a class of disinfectant by-products present in chlorinated tap water. Mainly due to their carcinogenic potential, their concentration in drinking water is now limited by regulations. In Romania, little is known about their distribution in urban drinking water supply systems, their magnitude, or their seasonal variation. Drinking water suppliers periodically adapt and optimise their water treatment methods for economic reasons and in response to regulatory changes and technological developments. The formation of THMs is influenced by the physicochemical parameters of water (pH, temperature, total organic carbon—TOC) and by environmental factors (geographical, climatological). Most of these factors have significant seasonal variations that lead to the formation of THMs in variable concentrations. In this study, we analysed the seasonal trends in surface water quality (considering variations in temperature, pH, and TOC) and correlated them with the concentration of THMs in drinking water over two calendar years. Water samples were collected from the Arges River, in a geographical area comprised of plains. The results show that the formation of THMs is enhanced by increasing temperature over the course of a year, with the highest concentrations being obtained in July 2022 (98.7 µg/L THMs at 30.5 °C) and in August 2023 (81.9 µg/L THMs at 30.4 °C). The main parameters that trigger the formation of THMs are the organic matter content and the disinfectant dose; the pH has a moderate effect, and its effect is correlated with the concentration of organic matter. There were noted strong seasonal changes in the concentration of THMs, with the maximum peak being in the middle and late summer and the minimum peak being in winter. This indicates the possibility that the quality of drinking water may change as a result of climate change. In addition, monitoring and chlorination experiments have established that the concentration of THMs is directly proportional with the TOC. Full article

Nitrifying bacteria, including ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB), are players in the nitrogen cycle but pose serious health risks when colonizing drinking water distribution networks (DWDNs). While the global impact of these bacteria is increasingly recognized, a significant research gap remains concerning their effects in tropical regions, particularly in developing countries. This study aims to bridge that gap by systematically reviewing the existing literature on nitrifying bacteria in DWDNs, their behavior in biofilms, and associated public health risks, particularly in systems reliant on surface water sources in tropical climates. Using the PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews, 51 relevant studies were selected based on content validity and relevance to the research objective. The findings highlight the critical role of nitrifying bacteria in the formation of nitrogenous disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) and highlight specific challenges faced by developing countries, including insufficient monitoring and low public awareness regarding safe water storage practices. Additionally, this review identifies key surrogate indicators, such as ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate concentrations, that influence the formation of DBPs. Although health risks from nitrifying bacteria are reported in comparable studies, there is a lack of epidemiological data from tropical regions. This underscores the urgent need for localized research, systematic monitoring, and targeted interventions to mitigate the risks associated with nitrifying bacteria in DWDNs. Addressing these challenges is essential for enhancing water safety and supporting sustainable water management in tropical developing countries. Full article

The aim of this study was to elucidate all the degradation byproducts (DBPs) of bemotrizinol (BEMT) that are associated with sodium hypochlorite treatment. BEMT is a UV filter that is found not only in many personal care products, such as sunscreen and cosmetics, but also as an additive in plastics or clothing to protect them from damage that results from absorbed radiation. BEMT has been detected in wastewater, surface water, and some lake sediments, in quantities from a few ng/L to hundreds of ng/L, to such an extent that, today, it is considered an emerging pollutant. In this study, the UV filter was subjected to oxidation with sodium hypochlorite, which is an oxidant at the base of the disinfection process that is used in most wastewater treatment plants or in swimming pools. Using different chromatographic methods (CC, TLC, HPLC, and GC), the resulting DBP mixture was separated into its main components, which were then identified using one- and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Nineteen DBPs were isolated, and a plausible reaction mechanism was proposed to explain how they were obtained. Full article