Search Results (31)

During lunar landing and takeoff, an extremely under-expanded jet from retrorocket engines generates a complex impingement flow, including multiple shocks and a near-field recirculation bubble, posing critical risks to lunar missions. To clarify the formation and evolution of the recirculation bubble, numerical simulations under non-uniform inflow conditions over a range of nozzle heights are performed using a compressible Navier–Stokes solver. The shock structures depend on the distance available for inflow development. Non-uniform total pressure ahead of the surface shock is the primary driver of the adverse pressure gradient that initiates the bubble. This non-uniformity originates from shock interactions at high nozzle heights and directly from the inflow conditions at low heights. Furthermore, the flow stabilizes rapidly at high nozzle heights, while strong unsteadiness persists at low heights. A dimensionless coefficient, C_RB, defined as the ratio of pressure difference to dynamic pressure along the recirculation bubble boundary, is proposed to characterize the interaction between the recirculation bubble and surface shock. Its steady-state variation with nozzle height reveals a distinct threshold below which both bubble size and intensity increase sharply, indicating a flow pattern transition. Full article

This study investigates jet plume deflection in underexpanded supersonic rectangular nozzles with aft-decks. To determine the underlying mechanism, 117 two-dimensional, Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes simulations were performed across a nozzle pressure ratio (NPR) range of $1.9\le \mathrm{NPR}\le 5.0$ and aft-deck length ($L_{\mathrm{aft}}/D_h$) range of $1.36\le L_{\mathrm{aft}}/D_h\le 3.37$. For each simulation, the first shock reflection $S_1$, the wall-pressure field, the vertical force $F_y$, and the presence of any separation bubble were recorded to characterize the relationships among $\mathrm{NPR}$, $L_{\mathrm{aft}}$, and $\theta$. Accordingly, a cause-and-effect path was delineated as $(\mathrm{NPR},L_{\mathrm{aft}})\to S_1\to F_y\to \theta$. A weighted regression captured 96% of the variance in the deflection angle and revealed that shifts in shock position set the wall-pressure imbalance. The imbalance fixes the vertical force and the force ultimately rotates the jet plume. Downward deflection arises when the shock reflects near the deck edge, whereas upstream reflection initiates a shock–boundary-layer interaction that forms a separation bubble and drives the jet plume upward. Between these extremes, a narrow operating band allows either outcome, explaining the divergent trends reported in prior work. The quantitative model assumes steady, two-dimensional flow and the regression prioritises illuminating the underlying physics over exact prediction of $\theta$. Nevertheless, under these assumptions, the analysis establishes a physics-based framework that reconciles earlier observations and offers a basis for understanding how nozzle pressure ratio and aft-deck length govern jet plume deflection. Full article

This paper provides shadowgraphy and molecular tagging velocimetry (MTV) acquisition results and validates a computational fluid dynamics (CFDs) simulation for an underexpanded supersonic gas jet in a plenum pointed toward a wall with an aligned converging pipe outlet. Flow configurations of this type are encountered in pulse-jet systems for online industrial gas filter regeneration. Although previous CFD validation efforts for pulse-jet systems have relied on static pressure measurements, this work expands the validation data using high-resolution flow visualization and velocimetry techniques. Simulations were performed with an axisymmetric two-dimensional Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes model and are in close agreement with the shadowgraphy and MTV data, including the description of Mach disks, barrel shocks, and reflected shocks in the underexpanded jet. The CFD model was finally applied to study the role of the converging tube downstream of the jet. Full article

This study is aimed at developing methods for the experimental and numerical simulation of the outflow of underexpanded gas jets into a rarefied medium. The numerical method is based on using Navier–Stokes equations in the continuum flow regime and the direct simulation Monte Carlo method in the transitional flow regime. The experimental method includes the modeling of jet flows in the LEMPUS-2 gas-dynamic setup with electron beam diagnostics for the jet density measurements. The results of the experimental modeling for the nozzles of various diameters confirm that a key parameter determining the jet structure is the Reynolds number based on the characteristic length Re_L. The results of the numerical simulations agree well with the experimental data both for the maximum values of the Re_L considered (approximately 30) when a barrel jet structure with Mach disks is formed and for the minimum values (approximately 4) when no Mach disks are formed. In the entire range of parameters, significant thermal nonequilibrium is observed at all jet segments where the measurements are performed. Full article

The nozzle, as a critical jet component in dry powder fire extinguishing systems, significantly affects jet characteristics through its geometric configuration. To explore the influence of structural parameters on ultrafine dry powder gas-solid two-phase jet characteristics, a bidirectional coupled numerical model based on the SST k-ω turbulence model and the Discrete Phase Model is employed. This study examines how variations in the semi-expansion angle (α) and semi-contraction angle (β) of the nozzle affect compressible gas flow behavior and particle distribution trajectories through a combination of simulations and experiments. The results indicate that when α = 2°, the gas jet is in an under-expanded state, leading to increased particle dispersion due to the stripping effect of the surrounding high-speed airflow. Within the range of x = 0–180 mm, the dry powder exhibits a diffusion trend. When α = 4.5°, the gas jet core region is the longest, providing optimal particle acceleration. Under constant inlet pressure, reducing α enhances particle collimation. The reduction of α alters the gas jet state, with α = 2° showing better powder diffusion compared to α = 6°. However, an excessively small α is detrimental to increasing the range of dry powder. With consistent structural parameters, the diffusion and range of dry powder remain the same across different β values, and variations in β have a relatively minor impact on supersonic jet characteristics. These findings offer theoretical guidance for optimizing and improving nozzles in ultrafine dry powder fire extinguishing systems. Full article

Ensuring the safety of space flights and solving the problems of reducing acoustic loads during the launch of space vehicles requires not only the development of new technical systems for launch complexes, but also methods for the numerical simulation of fluid and aeroacoustic fields generated by supersonic jets. The growing regulations for space vehicle noise also explain the interest in developing models and techniques that anticipate flow and the aeroacoustic characteristics of supersonic jets. Together with integral techniques for computing far-field noise, development of relevant mathematical models and implementation of numerical tools, the concepts of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and computational aeroacoustics (CAA) are covered. The noise generated by a supersonic underexpanded jet is used to illustrate the capabilities of current numerical modelling and simulation tools. The jet structure, flow properties, and aeroacoustic quantities are affected by the nozzle pressure ratio. The outcomes of numerical simulation are contrasted with existing experimental and computational data. The available numerical modelling and simulation tools facilitate the development of novel computational methods and methodologies for challenges in CFD and CAA, in addition to solving research and engineering problems. Full article

Supersonic impinging jets are a versatile configuration that can model the compressible flows of cold-spray manufacturing and vertical take-off-and landing strategy. In this work, rhoCentralFoam, solver of the OpenFOAM framework, and a large-eddy simulation formulation were used to simulate an underexpanded supersonic jet of Mach $1.45$ and nozzle pressure ratio of 4, impinging on a flat wall situated at $1.5$ nozzle diameters away from the jet outlet. Care was taken in the mesh construction to properly capture the characteristic standoff shock and vortical structures. The grid convergence index was evaluated with three meshes of increasing spatial resolution. All meshes can generally be considered as sufficient in terms of results focused on time-averaged values and mean physical properties such as centerline Mach number profile. However, the highest resolution mesh was found to capture fine shear vortical structures and behaviors that are absent in the coarser cases. Therefore, the notion of adequate grid convergence may differ between analyses of time-averaged and transient information, and so should be determined by the user’s intention for conducting the simulations. To guide the selection of mesh resolution, scaling analyses were performed, for which the current rhoCentralFoam solver displays a good weak scaling performance and maintains a linear strong scaling up to 4096 cores (32 nodes) for an approximately 40 million-cell mesh. Due to the internode communication bottlenecks of OpenFOAM and improvements in central processing units, this work recommends, for future scaling analyses, adopting a “cells-per-node” basis over the conventional “cells-per-core” basis, with particular attention to the interconnect speed and architecture used. Full article

The present paper provides a brief overview of the existing methods for energy separation and an analysis of the possibility of the practical application of the Hartmann–Sprenger effect to provide quasi-isothermal pressure reduction of natural gas at the facilities within a gas transmission system. The recommendations of external authors are analyzed. A variant of a quasi-isothermal pressure regulator is proposed, which assumes the mixing of flows after energy separation. Using a numerical simulation of gas dynamics, it is demonstrated that the position of the resonators can be determined on the basis of calculations of the structure of the underexpanded jet without taking into account the resonator and, accordingly, without the need for time-consuming calculations of the dynamics of the processes. Based on the results of simulating the gas dynamics of two nozzle–resonator pairs installed in a single flow housing, it is shown that, in order to optimize the regulator length, the width of the passage between the two nearest resonators should be greater than or equal to the sum of diameters of the critical sections of the nozzles. Numerical vibroacoustic analysis demonstrated that the most dangerous part of the resonator is the frequency of its natural oscillations. Full article

A hydrogen under-expanded jet released from a high-pressure vessel or equipment into the atmosphere through a 0.53 mm diameter orifice results in a sustained lifted flame for pressures above 4 MPa and flame blow-out at pressures below 3 MPa. Knowledge of whether the leaked hydrogen creates a sustained flame or is extinguished is an important issue for safety engineering. This study aims to clarify, in detail, a mechanism of flame stabilisation and blow-out depending on the spouting pressure. The model of flame stabilisation is derived using measurements and observations at the flame base location by means of high-speed schlieren images, laser diagnostics, and electrostatic probe techniques. The sustained stable flame originating from the 0.53 mm orifice is characterised by the existence of the spherical flame structures with a diameter of about 5 to 7 mm that appear one after another at the flame base and outside the streamlines of the hydrogen jet. As the spouting pressure reduces to 3.5 MPa, the sustained lifted flame becomes quasi-steady with higher fluctuations in amplitude of the flame base (lift-off height). In addition to that, flame structures are moving further from the hydrogen jet outlet, with a further decrease of spouting pressure leading to blow-out. The existence of spherical flame formations plays an important role in flame stabilisation. Based on the measurements of OH radicals using the PLIF method and ion currents, multiple flame surfaces were found to be folded in the flame structures. The hydrogen jet generates the vortex-like flow near its outer edge, creating flamelets upon ignition, ultimately forming the observed in the experiments spherical flame structures. Full article

The current ongoing rise in environmental pollution is leading research efforts toward the adoption of propulsion systems powered by gaseous fuels like hydrogen, methane, e-fuels, etc. Although gaseous fuels have been used in several types of propulsion systems, there are still many aspects that can be improved and require further study. For this reason, we considered it important to provide a review of the latest research topics, with a particular focus on the injection process. In advanced engine systems, fuel supply is achieved via enhanced direct injection into the combustion chamber. The latter involves the presence of under-expanded jets. Under-expanded jets are a particular kind of compressible flow. For this reason, the review initially provides a brief physical explanation of them. Next, experimental and numerical CFD investigation techniques are discussed. The last section of this manuscript presents an analysis of the jet’s structure. The injection parameters commonly used are examined; next, the characteristics of the near-nozzle field are reviewed and finally, the far-field turbulent mixing, which strongly affects the air–fuel mixture formation process, is discussed. Full article

To explore the complex flow field and noise characteristics of underwater high-speed gas jets, the mixture multiphase model, large eddy simulation method, and Ffowcs Williams–Hawking (FW–H) acoustic model were used for simulations, and the numerical methods were validated by the gas jet noise experimental results. The results revealed that during the initial stages, the jet collided with the water surface and created low-pressure high-temperature gas bubbles, accompanied by much high-frequency noise. When the jet reached its maximum length, its impact weakened, the bubble broke, the jet transformed into a conical shape, and the jet noise changed from high- to low-frequency. The pressure fluctuation peaked near the position at which the Mach number reached 1, indicating that the jet was the most unstable at the sonic point. Additionally, at low frequencies, the sound pressure levels between jets with different nozzle pressure ratios were similar, whereas above 400 Hz, under-expanded jets had higher sound pressure levels. This paper provides theoretical guidance for the study of underwater jet noise. Full article

Hydrogen is the energy vector that will lead us toward a more sustainable future. It could be the fuel of both fuel cells and internal combustion engines. Internal combustion engines are today the only motors characterized by high reliability, duration and specific power, and low cost per power unit. The most immediate solution for the near future could be the application of hydrogen as a fuel in modern internal combustion engines. This solution has advantages and disadvantages: specific physical, chemical and operational properties of hydrogen require attention. Hydrogen is the only fuel that could potentially produce no carbon, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emissions. It also allows high engine efficiency and low nitrogen oxide emissions. Hydrogen has wide flammability limits and a high flame propagation rate, which provide a stable combustion process for lean and very lean mixtures. Near the stoichiometric air–fuel ratio, hydrogen-fueled engines exhibit abnormal combustions (backfire, pre-ignition, detonation), the suppression of which has proven to be quite challenging. Pre-ignition due to hot spots in or around the spark plug can be avoided by adopting a cooled or unconventional ignition system (such as corona discharge): the latter also ensures the ignition of highly diluted hydrogen–air mixtures. It is worth noting that to correctly reproduce the hydrogen ignition and combustion processes in an ICE with the risks related to abnormal combustion, 3D CFD simulations can be of great help. It is necessary to model the injection process correctly, and then the formation of the mixture, and therefore, the combustion process. It is very complex to model hydrogen gas injection due to the high velocity of the gas in such jets. Experimental tests on hydrogen gas injection are many but never conclusive. It is necessary to have a deep knowledge of the gas injection phenomenon to correctly design the right injector for a specific engine. Furthermore, correlations are needed in the CFD code to predict the laminar flame velocity of hydrogen–air mixtures and the autoignition time. In the literature, experimental data are scarce on air–hydrogen mixtures, particularly for engine-type conditions, because they are complicated by flame instability at pressures similar to those of an engine. The flame velocity exhibits a non-monotonous behavior with respect to the equivalence ratio, increases with a higher unburnt gas temperature and decreases at high pressures. This makes it difficult to develop the correlation required for robust and predictive CFD models. In this work, the authors briefly describe the research path and the main challenges listed above. Full article

Modern aircraft and missiles are gradually integrating thrust vector control systems to enhance their military capabilities. Bypass Dual-Throat Nozzle (BDTN) control is a new fluidic thrust vectoring technique capable of achieving superior performance with large vector angles and low thrust loss. In this study, we analyzed the flow characteristics and performance parameters of BDTN by varying the bypass angle, nozzle convergence angle, and bypass width. The flow governing equations are solved according to a finite volume discretization technique of the compressible RANS equations coupled with the Renormalization Group (RNG) k-ϵ turbulence model for Nozzle Pressure Ratio (NPR = 2~10) to capture the significance of under-expanded and over-expanded jets. Results show that by decreasing the bypass angle from 90° to 35°, there is a 6% increase in vectoring angle while the vectoring efficiency is enhanced by 18%. However, a decrease of 3% in the thrust and discharge coefficients is also observed. When the convergence angle was increased from 22° to 37°, vectoring angle, discharge coefficient, and thrust coefficient increased by 2%, 1%, and 0.26%, respectively. Moreover, vectoring efficiency is also enhanced by 8% by reducing the convergence angle from 37° to 22°. Based on the investigated parameters, it is determined that nozzle convergence angle does not significantly influence thrust vectoring performance, however, bypass width and bypass angle have a significant effect on thrust vectoring performance. Full article

An under-expanded hydrogen jet from high-pressure equipment or storage tank is a potential incident scenario. Experiments demonstrated that the delayed ignition of a highly turbulent under-expanded hydrogen jet generates a blast wave able to harm people and damage property. There is a need for engineering tools to predict the pressure effects during such incidents to define hazard distances. The similitude analysis is applied to build a correlation using available experimental data. The dimensionless blast wave overpressure generated by delayed ignition and the follow-up deflagration or detonation of hydrogen jets at an any location from the jet, $∆P_{exp}/P_0$, is correlated to the original dimensionless parameter composed of the product of the dimensionless ratio of storage pressure to atmospheric pressure, $P_s/P_0$, and the ratio of the jet release nozzle diameter to the distance from the centre of location of the fast-burning near-stoichiometric mixture on the jet axis (30% of hydrogen in the air by volume) to the location of a target (personnel or property), $d/R_w$. The correlation is built using the analysis of 78 experiments regarding this phenomenon in the wide range of hydrogen storage pressure of 0.5–65.0 MPa and release diameter of 0.5–52.5 mm. The correlation is applicable to hydrogen free jets at ambient and cryogenic temperatures. It is found that the generated blast wave decays inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the fast-burning portion of the jet. The correlation is used to calculate the hazard distances by harm thresholds for five typical hydrogen applications. It is observed that in the case of a vehicle with onboard storage tank at pressure 70 MPa, the “no-harm” distance for humans reduces from 10.5 m to 2.6 m when a thermally activated pressure relief device (TPRD) diameter decreases from 2 mm to a diameter of 0.5 mm. Full article

A simplified 2D model for calculating two-phase gas–particle flows in a slot space has been developed. The model can be used for fast calculation and estimation of supersonic-flow parameters in the slot space. Using this model, a numerical simulation of the flow in two-phase gas–particle supersonic jets exhausting into a submerged slot space bounded by two parallel disks was performed. The presence of particles led to the splitting of the gas jet into an internal two-phase jet and an external gas jet. In the present study, we investigated the structure of a two-phase jet as dependent on the spacing between the disks for conditions of cold spraying. A new effect was found in the flow at a small spacing between the disks (of the order of 0.2 mm) and a high-velocity internal two-phase gas–particle jet was formed. The distribution of the concentration of particles in the particle jet proved to be essentially non-uniform, with a caustic formed at the upper jet boundary. Full article