Search Results (716)

The construction sector contributes substantially to global greenhouse gas emissions, making material substitutions a key strategy for advancing sustainability transitions. Mass timber has emerged as a low-carbon alternative to mineral-based construction materials, offering biogenic carbon storage and compatibility with prefabricated and industrialized building systems. This study aims to systematically synthesize the economic, cost, and market evidence on mass timber construction by reviewing 143 peer-reviewed publications, with the objective of clarifying what is empirically known and where uncertainties remain. The reviewed literature reveals three core findings. First, economic outcomes are mixed: while several studies report regional value creation, supply-chain upgrading, and alignment with circular-economy principles, others highlight persistent constraints such as limited manufacturing capacity and uneven policy support. Second, construction cost findings vary substantially, ranging from cost parity or modest savings relative to conventional systems to premiums of approximately 10–15%, shaped by regional pricing, labor availability, transportation distance, regulatory conditions, and supply-chain maturity. Third, market-oriented studies consistently identify slow diffusion, limited practitioner experience, and risk-averse investment environments as key barriers to adoption. Overall, the review shows that economic performance is not yet consistently established and underscores the need for more standardized, context-sensitive, and methodologically consistent evaluation frameworks to support informed decision-making and the sustainable scaling of mass timber construction. Full article

Prefabricated timber construction relies on coordinated digital processes that integrate architectural design, structural engineering, and manufacturing requirements. However, current industry practices are highly fragmented, with models often reconstructed across different software platforms, and collaboration is mainly focused on exchanging files and document-based approvals. These issues lead to geometric misalignments, delayed coordination of manufacturing limitations, and inefficient design-to-manufacturing workflows. This study introduces a parametric geometry-based integration framework aimed at enhancing digital continuity throughout the design, engineering, and manufacturing stages of prefabricated timber buildings. The framework offers a rule-based parametric system where geometry is governed by specific relationships and constraints, enabling the development of discipline-specific models from a unified computational source. A model was created using Rhinoceros and Grasshopper to generate a parametric timber module and to test cross-platform compatibility with structural analysis software (Dlubal) and manufacturing detailing software (Cadwork). The results show that parameter-driven geometry can be integrated across platforms, supporting reduced primary geometry re-authoring and improved cross-platform coordination within the proof-of-concept workflow. The framework extends technical validation by shifting parametric modelling from merely a generative design tool to a comprehensive infrastructure that supports industrialised timber workflows. The proposed approach provides a practical solution to enhance design-to-manufacturing integration in prefabricated construction, while maintaining modelling flexibility specific to each discipline. Full article

Fire protection remains one of the key challenges in the field of architectural heritage conservation, particularly for heritage buildings dominated by timber structures, which face greater difficulties in fire prevention and risk assessment. To systematically evaluate the fire safety performance of high-rise timber heritage buildings, this study takes the Shengjin Pagoda, a typical brick–timber pavilion-style ancient tower in Jiangxi Province, China, as the research object. A three-dimensional performance-based fire assessment framework was developed using Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) and PyroSim. Based on field survey data and historical documentation, the geometric characteristics, material properties, and vertical circulation system of the pagoda were reconstructed. Three representative fire scenarios, including bottom-floor ignition, simultaneous multi-level ignition, and wind-driven top-floor ignition, were established to investigate smoke propagation, thermal insulation degradation, and the thermal response of critical timber components under different fire conditions. The results show that brick walls provide effective thermal insulation during the early stages of fire, with efficiency exceeding 90%, but this decreases to approximately 55% in upper regions due to chimney-effect-driven smoke accumulation. Under wind-driven top-floor ignition, exposed dougong components can reach temperatures of 782 °C, resulting in a progressive “top-down and outside-in” failure mechanism. The study reveals the dominant smoke-driven heat transfer pathways and the failure sequence of critical load-bearing elements. Based on these findings, a performance-based fire protection strategy incorporating vertical virtual smoke control zoning and fire-resistance enhancement of key structural components is proposed to support the sustainable conservation of historic high-rise timber structures. Full article

The structural strength requirements for timber buildings have been significantly tightened in the second generation of Eurocodes (EN 1990:2023, EN 1991-1-7), which poses a particular challenge for solid timber frames with a beam-and-column structure, where the transfer of tensile forces via dowel connections is inherently limited. Existing multiscale frameworks for timber post-and-beam robustness lack operational detail at each scale, and no validated workflow currently bridges joint-level continuum damage mechanics and frame-level progressive failure analysis in compliance with the second-generation Eurocodes. This paper addresses this gap by proposing an effective two-scale finite element method (FEM) modelling framework for assessing the strength of such frames during column removal. Existing multiscale models describing the strength of timber structures with beam-and-column systems lack the operational details necessary to integrate failure mechanics at the joint level and progressive failure modelling at the frame level within a single, validated workflow. In this paper, this gap is addressed through three specific contributions: a physically modified quadratic Hashin-type failure criterion for timber, which eliminates the non-physical increase in shear strength under combined stress states perpendicular to the grain; a two-scale structure based on the finite element method (FEM), in which the results of continuous damage mechanics at the joint level directly parameterise non-linear joint elements with six degrees of freedom at the frame level, taking into account coupled directional wear and erosion of the elements; and quantitative validation of both scales against experimental data and the conversion factors for characteristic values of the second generation of Eurocode 5 (prEN 1995-1-1:2023). At the connection level, the simulated strength and stiffness values agree with the experiments to within an error of no more than 5%. At the frame level, the model correctly reproduces the non-linear ‘load–displacement’ relationship, the sequence of joint failure, and the axial forces in the chain line for vertical displacements up to 390 mm, which corresponds to experimental observations. Full article

Point-supported connections are an innovative modern connection design that can benefit from the 2-way structural action of cross-laminated timber (CLT) slabs, which is typically not considered in traditional timber design. It also allows for flatter ceiling surfaces where no beams are needed to support the mass timber floor slabs. In an attempt to better understand the structural behaviour of this type of connection in fire conditions, preliminary unloaded fire tests were conducted to evaluate their thermal performance. The test results indicated that, for these tested configurations, the presence of steel connection components does not inherently increase charring rates within adjacent mass timber elements. While the outcomes provided valuable insights on the thermal performance of such assemblies, their actual mechanical behaviour under structural loading in fire conditions remains unknown. This paper presents the results of two structural fire-resistance tests under load: Test 1 had the gap fully exposed to fire, and Test 2 had the gap protected by a firestop. Neither assembly reached failure during the 2 h of standard fire exposure, while the target load could not be fully maintained to the end of the tests. Test 1 experienced charring at the CLT-steel plate interface, while Test 2 did not. Their mechanical behaviours were also similar. Lastly, a preliminary design approach is being proposed, although it requires further validation. Full article

Xiaitermes Gao & He, 1994 is a small genus within Nasutitermitinae, the largest subfamily of Termitidae. It comprises only two species, both of which are wood-feeding pests endemic to China that damage building timbers and economic crops. However, the morphological similarity between these two species, combined with a lack of molecular data, has made species identification challenging. This study determined the first mitochondrial genomes of Xiaitermes tiantaiensis Gao & He, 1994 and Xiaitermes yinxianensis Gao & He, 1994 (15,867 bp and 15,866 bp in length, respectively), which share 99.9% sequence identity. Comparative mitogenomic analysis revealed an A+T-biased nucleotide composition and codon usage pattern, as well as conserved tRNA secondary structures. Morphological analysis of the soldier caste demonstrated that the apical processes of the mandibles exhibit considerable intraspecific variation and are not diagnostic for species delimitation. Furthermore, the ranges of the seven morphological measurements strongly overlapped. Integrated molecular and morphological evidence confirmed that X. tiantaiensis is a junior synonym of X. yinxianensis. Although phylogenetic analyses based on mitogenomic data only partially resolved relationships among subfamilies within Termitidae, they provided better resolution within Nasutitermitinae and consistently placed Xiaitermes as closely related to Ahmaditermes. Full article

This study investigates the durability of timber buildings through a systematic literature review and a service life assessment of two representative building components. The review focused on degradation mechanisms, reasons for demolition, reference service life values, and strategies for extending service life. The deterioration of timber was found to be primarily driven by biological, physical, and mechanical processes, with moisture as a critical factor. Although degradation mechanisms are thoroughly documented, evidence concerning the physical lifespan of timber buildings remains scarce. Most demolitions are due to obsolescence and inadequate maintenance rather than structural failure. Reference service life values are frequently derived from expert judgment and often lack transparent boundary conditions. Nevertheless, factor-based service life prediction models offer a framework for evaluating structural components. When applied to a reference building, the method yielded estimated service lives of 100 years for an interior LVL beech column and 81 years for an exterior wall stud. These findings align with observed lifespans reported in demolition studies. More robust empirical data on demolition ages and refined reference values under standardized conditions are needed. Such improvements would enhance the accuracy of service life prediction models, support more realistic environmental assessments, and strengthen the role of timber as a sustainable construction material. Full article

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is recognized as a leading engineered wood product because of its sustainability, reduced carbon footprint, and growing application in civil engineering structures. However, the numerical modeling of CLT systems is challenging due to numerous connection details and the lack of standardized models. This study evaluates the effect of different types of experimental data on the finite element model (FEM) updating process for CLT panels. To this end, 30 CLT panels with varying configurations were subjected to monotonic loading to characterize their load–displacement responses, and ambient vibration tests were conducted to identify their dynamic characteristics. Initial FEMs of the CLT panels were developed and then updated using three different approaches: displacement-based, frequency-based, and a combined method. The results indicated that updating based solely on displacement data accurately captures static responses but fails to adequately represent modal behavior. In contrast, frequency-based updating yielded reliable natural frequencies but resulted in significant discrepancies in displacement predictions. The combined updating method provided consistent results, reducing displacement differences to 0–14.29% with an average of 3.23%, while maintaining frequency discrepancies below 5%. Overall, the results show that obtaining a reliable numerical model of CLT systems requires combining different types of experimental data. Full article

The European construction sector accounts for approximately 40% of EU final energy consumption and around 36% of lifecycle CO₂ emissions, creating structural demand for low-carbon alternatives consistent with the European Green Deal and the revised Energy Performance of Buildings Directive. This article presents a structured multi-criteria assessment of seven bio-based construction material categories producible within the EU—wood fibre/cellulose insulation, expanded cork agglomerates (insulation corkboard), mass timber (CLT and Glulam), hemp–lime composites (hempcrete), straw bale systems, mycelium-based composites, and cellulose aerogels—evaluated across twelve sub-criteria organised under three equally weighted pillars: environmental impact, economic opportunity, and social value. The analysis integrates durability maturity as a primary market-access variable, fire performance under Wildland–Urban Interface (WUI) exposure conditions, seismic risk compatibility, and EU regional demand heterogeneity. Composite scores are calculated by summing individual criterion scores, with pillar sub-totals shown explicitly. A sensitivity analysis under three alternative pillar-weighting scenarios, a single-criterion perturbation analysis, a Monte Carlo simulation, and a TOPSIS method comparison collectively test the robustness of rankings. Results indicate that wood fibre/cellulose insulation, expanded cork agglomerates, and hemp–lime composites constitute the highest-impact portfolio under baseline and environmental priority weighting; under economic priority weighting, mass timber displaces hemp–lime in the top 3. Under environmental priority weighting, cork achieves the highest composite score of any material, driven by its perfect environmental pillar sub-score and the regenerative carbon sequestration of the cork oak. All four robustness tests confirm that wood fibre, cork, and hemp–lime occupy the top 3 positions across all weighting scenarios—with cork rising to first and wood fibre dropping to third under environmental priority weighting—and that the additive scoring method produces rankings identical to those generated by the TOPSIS method. Full article

Tropical forests are facing escalating deforestation, while forest degradation, driven by a complex interplay of human-induced factors, emerges as an additional and compounding threat. In this context, regulated selective logging persists as an alternative to conciliate forest protection and economic development. This study synthesizes current knowledge on the impacts of logging, focusing on research trends, geographic distribution, ecological topics, and key variables like logging intensity, time since logging, and number of logging cycles. Since the 1970s, 641 papers listed on the Scopus platform have demonstrated a sharp increase in publication activity over the past five years, followed by a tendency toward stabilization. Papers were concentrated in Brazil and Malaysia, with few papers coming from other countries, particularly from Africa. Notably, 47% of the studies did not report logging intensity, and one-third focused almost exclusively on its impacts on forest physical structure, damage, or biomass—leaving a wide range of other topics largely unexplored until 2022. We refer to 13 topics with less than 20 studies in total, such as nutrient cycling, non-timber forest products, biological invasion, and key biological taxa. Herbs, epiphytes, fishes and amphibians were among the least investigated taxa across the regions. Furthermore, when controlling variables like region and logging intensity, most ecological topics had fewer than five dedicated studies. Research remains largely restricted to similar scenarios: first-cycle logging in old-growth forests, leaving substantial knowledge gaps. As logging operations are expected to increase, we argue for (1) mandatory long-term monitoring in logging regulations; (2) public access to monitoring data, reports and information related to regulated logging; (3) a global platform to exchange experience such as long-term monitoring, better practices, silvicultural approaches and sustainability assessment; (4) alignment among regulatory and certification agencies on sustainability standards; (5) capacity building initiatives; and (6) long-term experiments devoted to logging sustainability and better practices. Full article

Traditional villages represent vital living heritage in China. We develop a multi-scale eco-coupling framework integrating GIS spatial analysis and 3D laser scanning to analyze the natural and social environment, spatial patterns, and architectural forms across macro–meso–micro levels in traditional villages of southern Shaanxi, and use partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to test the hypothesized cross-scale pathways. The results show significant spatial clustering, mainly in the water-adjacent low-mountain valleys and under moderate gradients of GDP, population density, and road density. The morphology is classified as clustered, linear, or scatter shaped, while buildings are dominated by courtyard, patio, and single-row layouts with timber structures, rammed earth or stone walls, and double-pitched roofs. After reliability and validity checks, the PLS-SEM confirms significant macro–meso–micro pathways, with the meso scale as a key mediator. Overall, the study reveals that persistence depends on long-term coupling among multi-scale factors, providing theoretical and methodological support for conservation and sustainable development. Full article

Historic building documentation requires both complete spatial coverage and reliable geometric detail, but a single surveying technique often cannot meet both requirements in complex heritage scenes. This study proposes a robustness-oriented TLS–UAV point cloud registration and fusion workflow for historic building documentation. The workflow combines feature-based coarse registration with an improved point-to-plane ICP strategy incorporating normal consistency, radiometric correspondence filtering, dynamic distance thresholds, and multi-resolution refinement. The method was evaluated using the Yao’an Lu Junmin Zongguan Fu, a timber–brick courtyard complex in Yunnan, China, under small, medium, and large initial perturbations. Under small and medium perturbations, Point-to-Plane ICP achieved lower RMSE values, while the proposed method produced comparable results. Under large perturbation, the proposed method achieved the highest success rate and the lowest RMSE of 119.0 cm, indicating stronger robustness under challenging initialization. The fused TLS–UAV model achieved checkpoint-based RMSE values of 1.73 cm horizontally and 0.75 cm vertically. Spatial deviation maps showed that residual errors were mainly concentrated around roof edges, eaves, wall corners, and roof–facade transition zones. Cross-scene validation on the Church of Agios Mamas dataset achieved a registration RMSE of 1.2 cm without parameter adjustment. The results show that the proposed workflow is suitable for offline conservation-oriented documentation where registration robustness, model completeness, and component-level geometric interpretation are required. Full article

This paper presents an extended combined experimental and numerical study on the vibration comfort assessment of a modern timber-framed public utility building. The research focuses on a lightweight skeleton floor system, representing a typical high-frequency floor. In situ vibration measurements were conducted under various walking excitations (single and multiple pedestrians) to determine key vibration parameters. Post-processing, which yielded root mean square accelerations and velocities, was performed using a custom-developed code in the Mathematica package. A finite element model was prepared in Dlubal RFEM 6 using shell and beam elements with offsets. The dynamic characteristics obtained from the FE modal analysis showed high consistency with the experimental data, with a relative error of approximately 5 % for the fundamental frequency. The vibration comfort was assessed using two distinct methodologies: the JRC report and the SCI P354 guide. Both approaches positively verified the floor’s vibration comfort, confirming its suitability for the intended use. The study demonstrates that the JRC methodology is more straightforward and unambiguous for engineering practice. Furthermore, the results indicate that simplified FE models provide a reliable basis for predicting vibration modes and calculating mode shape factors, which are essential for the correct interpretation of local measurements in existing buildings. Full article

This article presents a multi-criteria comparative analysis of modern wall partitions in light-frame technology, with a focus on highly energy-efficient modular construction. The motivation for this research stems from the critical need to optimize building thermal insulation materials to minimize heat loss, while simultaneously ensuring low structural weight, rapid assembly, and hygrothermal safety in prefabricated systems. The aim of this study is to identify the most advantageous insulating materials and structural configurations by evaluating their thermal transmittance, moisture behavior, thermal dynamics, and fire resistance. The analysis encompassed four structural variants paired with seven types of advanced and conventional insulation materials. This comprehensive matrix allowed for the development of 28 computational models. Simulations were carried out for severe winter climatic conditions in Poland, utilizing the Ubakus software and conforming to the PN-EN ISO 13788, PN-EN ISO 6946, PN-EN 12524, and DIN 4108-3 standards. The simulations assumed strict steady-state boundary conditions for a 90-day condensation period, with an external profile of −14 °C/80% RH and an internal climate of 20 °C/50% RH. The evaluation focused on key physical and energy parameters, including the heat transfer coefficient (U-value), condensation risk, diffusion resistance, thermal phase shift, and partition weight. Quantitative findings reveal that the ventilated system with resol foam insulation (variant 4d) yielded the best overall performance, achieving a U-value of 0.089 W/(m²·K) W/(m²·K). The results confirm that the strategic selection of high-performance thermal insulation materials, coupled with structural thermal bridge mitigation, significantly enhances the energy efficiency, thermal stability, and moisture resistance of lightweight enclosures, establishing a comprehensive comparative framework for optimizing modular building envelopes. Full article

On 26 January 2026, a 5.5-magnitude earthquake occurred in Diebu County, Gansu Province, causing different degrees of damage and collapse to houses. To understand the damage characteristics and causes of typical buildings, a post-earthquake damage assessment was conducted on buildings in the epicentral area through field investigations of 16 urban buildings and rural houses in 10 natural villages. The results indicate that among the rural buildings, timber frame structures accounted for the largest proportion and suffered the worst damage, primarily manifested as overall collapse of enclosure walls, partial wall collapse, and wall cracking. Brick–wood structures and non-seismic fortification masonry structures suffered relatively minor damage, mainly characterized by cracks at the intersections of longitudinal and transverse walls, as well as diagonal cracks around door and window openings. In urban buildings, reinforced concrete frame structures are more prevalent, with damage primarily concentrated on infill walls, stairwells, suspended ceilings and decorative surfaces. In seismic-resistant masonry structures, the damage primarily involves the failure of non-structural components such as parapets and canopies. The primary causes of seismic damage are construction defects and the absence of seismic structural measures in self-built houses, insufficient seismic resilience in non-structural components of seismic-resistant structures, and the site amplification effect and secondary seismic hazards, which exacerbate the damage to buildings. Furthermore, improvement measures are proposed based on the seismic damage characteristics of different structures. These include conducting research on the construction techniques of Tibetan-style timber-frame houses, developing design and construction standards tailored to local conditions, and enhancing the seismic performance of non-structural components for seismic-resistant structures. The aim is to provide a scientific basis and engineering guidance for post-disaster reconstruction and earthquake disaster prevention in affected areas. Full article