Search Results (243)

As a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based plastics, psyllium gum, a natural hydrocolloid from Plantago ovata seeds, is reviewed for its application in packaging. This review focuses on the material properties of psyllium gum, including its film-forming capacity, water-binding capacity of 12–15 g/g, and rheological behavior (consistency index K = 10–50 Pa·sⁿ, flow behavior index n = 0.3–0.6), which are critical for packaging applications. We discuss how its performance can be enhanced through interactions with plasticizers, cross-linking agents, and blending with other biopolymers (e.g., polyvinyl alcohol and starch), as well as through nanocomposite reinforcement, to improve mechanical strength (tensile strength 5–15 MPa in native films; up to 48 MPa in thermoplastic starch composites), and barrier properties (e.g., oxygen permeability < 0.001 g/m² s). The review also provides a comparative analysis of psyllium-based films with other polysaccharide films and discusses the environmental benefits, such as a lower carbon footprint (GWP ≈ 1.2 kg CO₂-eq/kg) compared to PET (≈3.0 kg CO₂-eq/kg). Key challenges, including moisture sensitivity (equilibrium moisture content ~25% at 75% RH), raw material molecular-weight variability (±20%), and scalability, are outlined, along with future research directions, such as enzymatic extraction and the development of water-resistant, compostable formulations aimed at advancing psyllium gum toward viable next-generation sustainable food packaging materials. Full article

This study presents the results of evaluating composites based on modified thermoplastic starch (TPS) with BWW40 and FD600/30 cellulose fibers at varying mass contents. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of filler type and quantity on mechanical properties and water absorption. Test samples were prepared using the injection molding method. It was shown that increasing fiber content led to a reduction in strength of approximately 36% for BWW40 fibers and approximately 37% for FD600/30 fibers at maximum fill. Similar results were observed for elongation at break. Young’s modulus increased by approximately 15% for BWW40 fibers and approximately 13% for FD600/30 fibers. Water absorption also increased with increasing fiber content, which is due to the hydrophilic nature of both the starch matrix and the reinforcing phase. The main conclusion drawn from the conducted research is that by properly selecting the type and content of fibers, it is possible to consciously shape the stiffness and dimensional stability of such composites while maintaining their biodegradability. The results obtained allow for a better assessment of the application potential of these materials in the context of developing sustainable material solutions. Full article

This research aimed to evaluate the effects of formulation and process conditions on the physical and structural properties of starch–brewers’ spent grain films. Three factors were considered: BSG amounts (0, 1, 3, 5%), a possible ultrasonication pre-treatment, and different microwave gelatinization treatments (450 W for 80 and 90 s; 900 W for 45 and 50 s). An increase in BSG is responsible for increases in moisture (10.72 → 23.40%), water absorption (67.65 → 95.73%), density (0.90 → 1.27 g/cm³), browning index (5.86 → 85.88), UV blocking capacity (82.42% → 99.96% for UV_A; 61.28% → 99.86% for UV_B), and degradability in the first 7 days (58.72 → 66.57%), but dramatically decreases the Young’s modulus and tensile strength (fallen to 2.90 N/mm² and 0.21 N/mm², at 5% BSG). Sonication contributes to increased browning index (36.17 → 37.24), UV blocking capacity, solubility (49.35 → 51.49%) and Young’s modulus (4.40 → 4.77 N/mm²). The most severe microwave treatment (900 W, 50 s) minimizes moisture (15.83%) and water absorption (80.89%) and maximizes density (1.21 g/cm³), browning index (37.52), and Young’s modulus (5.37 N/mm²). SEM micrographs allow us to observe that the film surface appears rough, and the structure becomes increasingly porous as BSG % increases. The regression analysis indicates that the quadratic model effectively describes the relationships between the three factors and each of the most important properties of the films; it is suitable for predicting film behavior and optimizing their characteristics depending on the desired use. Full article

The burgeoning convenience food sector, particularly in China, has intensified demand for packaging that simultaneously delivers convenience, environmental sustainability, and functional performance. This study addresses this need by developing a novel self-sealing, rapidly soluble food packaging film. The film was prepared using solvent casting technology, with a konjac glucomannan (KGM) matrix as the base material and gelatin (Gel) and hydroxypropyl tapioca starch (HS) as reinforcing agents. Leveraging the thermoplastic effect of HS (its hydroxypropyl side chains disrupt the ordered hydrogen bond network of KGM and Gel, enhancing molecular chain mobility) characterization via FTIR and SEM confirmed successful heat-sealing upon HS incorporation, while dissolution testing validated enhanced dissolution kinetics. The optimal formulation (KGH₃) exhibited superior mechanical properties (tensile strength (TS): 17.54 MPa) and excellent barrier performance against both light and oxygen transmission compared to pristine KGM and KG control films. Self-sealed pouches fabricated from KGH films preserved edible oil for 65 days, maintaining peroxide values within acceptable limits and demonstrating 48.7% reduction in oxidation compared to KG films. These findings establish KGM–Gel–HS film as promising candidates for adhesive-free, biodegradable packaging of lipid-rich foods. Full article

Bioplastics are in focus for the development of sustainable materials due to the depletion of fossil resources, generation of solid waste and global climate change. Considering this, the current research is devoted to the valorization of beachcast red seaweed F. lumbricalis for the development of thermoplastically processable bioplastics. The composites have been developed from beachcast red seaweed-derived furcellaran (FUR) and potato-derived thermoplastic starch (TPS) by using an ultrasound-assisted technique. Three different FUR concentrations (10, 30 and 50 wt.%) in relation to potato starch were examined for their thermoplastic processability. Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to reveal the structural changes in the developed TPS/FUR composites depending on FUR content as well as thermal pre-treatment. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and tensile mechanical tests were performed to assess the performance of the developed TPS/FUR composites. It was demonstrated that the ultrasound-assisted manufacturing route allowed TPS/FUR composites with an improved spectrum of properties to be obtained. The highest mechanical stress at break (almost three times higher than for neat TPS) was observed for the TPS + 50 wt.% FUR composite, which also possessed decreased deformability (only ca 10%), reduced thermal resistance at processing temperatures (150 °C) and high shear sensitivity. Thus, the TPS + 30 wt.% FUR and especially the TPS + 10 wt.% FUR composites were recognized as more suitable for thermoplastic processing and the development of TPS-based composites with improved exploitation properties. Full article

This study investigates the effects of organic salts, including sodium citrate (SC), calcium citrate (CC), and calcium lactate (CL), on the structure–property–function relationships of thermoplastic starch/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (TPS/PBAT) films for active packaging applications. TPS incorporated with organic salts was prepared via twin-screw extrusion, blended with PBAT, and further processed into blown films. The films were systematically characterized using ¹H NMR, FTIR, and SEM, together with optical, mechanical, water vapor permeability, and antimicrobial evaluations against Staphylococcus aureus. The results revealed that SC primarily modulated hydrogen-bonding interactions within the starch matrix, resulting in improved structural homogeneity, balanced mechanical properties, and the highest antimicrobial activity among all formulations. In contrast, CL and CC promoted ionic crosslinking through Ca²⁺–starch interactions, leading to increased stiffness and Young’s modulus but reduced polymer chain mobility and limited release of active species, particularly in CC-containing systems. These differences in molecular interactions were consistent with variations in film microstructure, where SC-containing films exhibited more uniform morphologies, while calcium-based systems showed denser but less permeable structures. Furthermore, films containing SC and CL at appropriate concentrations achieved a favorable balance between transparency, water vapor barrier properties, and antimicrobial performance. Overall, this study provides new mechanistic insights into how monovalent and divalent organic salts govern intermolecular interactions, microstructure, and functional performance in TPS/PBAT systems. The findings highlight the critical role of additive type and concentration in designing biodegradable active packaging materials with tunable mechanical, barrier, and antimicrobial properties. Full article

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) can be a sustainable alternative to petrochemical plastics for flexible packaging, especially in rainforests and tropical regions where native starch sources such as cassava are abundant. However, one problem preventing TPS packaging from widespread use is its susceptibility to moisture. This study evaluated TPS formulations based on Amazonian cassava starch reinforced with plantain leaf fibers, beeswax, and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) particles. The plastic compounds were extruded to obtain pellets and then films at 120–130 °C. The resulting films were then cut and heat-sealed to obtain flexible packaging. Different properties of the TPS packages were evaluated, such as mechanical strength, water vapor transmission (WVTR), color, infrared spectrum (FT-IR), and moisture adsorption. The results showed that the formulation with beeswax (2% w/w), plantain leaves powder (1% w/w), and LDPE powder (2% w/w) had a higher tensile strength (5.99 MPa) and moisture barrier (WVTR = 366.6 g m⁻² d⁻¹) compared to the control formulation only with plasticizers (glycerol and water) but without reinforcements (0.48 MPa and 1486.6 g m⁻² d⁻¹, respectively). Films with only beeswax (4% w/w) and plantain leaves powder (2.5% w/w) had tensile strength = 5.53 MPa and WVTR = 716.8 g m⁻² d⁻¹, with higher moisture adsorption compared to the samples with LDPE. In both cases, homogeneous and heat-sealable bags were obtained. The reinforced TPS films can be used to reduce the environmental impact generated by single-use packaging applications such as food commercialization. Full article

Biodegradable active packaging that incorporates food-grade additives offers a promising solution for extending shelf life and minimizing food waste. This study investigates the development of functional packaging films for cheese applications by blending thermoplastic starch (TPS) and poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) in a 60/40 (w/w) ratio with various concentrations of sodium lactate (SL; 1–7% w/w) using blown-film extrusion. Spectroscopic analyses, including ¹H NMR and FTIR, confirmed the presence of hydrogen-bonding and ionic interactions between the hydroxyl (–OH) groups of thermoplastic starch (TPS) and the carboxylate (–COO⁻) groups of sodium lactate, which enhanced interfacial compatibility and produced smoother, more compact film morphologies. SL acted as a multifunctional plasticizer and compatibilizer, improving film flexibility while slightly reducing tensile strength. Notably, SL incorporation increased water vapor permeability and surface wettability but significantly decreased oxygen permeability to below 1 cc·mm/m²·day·atm. At moderate concentrations (≥ 3% w/w), SL also exhibited antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. When applied to cheese packaging, SL-modified films effectively maintained color stability for up to 9 days under refrigerated storage. Notably, cheeses packaged with films containing 3–7% (w/w) SL exhibited significantly lower hardness values than the control on day 3, indicating improved moisture retention and texture preservation, although these differences were no longer significant by day 9. These findings demonstrate that sodium lactate can simultaneously enhance interfacial miscibility, oxygen barrier performance, and antimicrobial functionality in sustainable, biodegradable active packaging systems. Full article

The rapid accumulation of plastic waste and the depletion of fossil resources have intensified global efforts to develop biodegradable polymeric materials derived from renewable feedstocks. In this context, starch-based films have emerged as one of the most promising alternatives to conventional petroleum-based plastics, owing to their wide availability, low cost, biodegradability, and ability to form continuous films using simple and scalable processing techniques. Starch is a naturally occurring polysaccharide composed primarily of amylose and amylopectin, whose molecular structure is rich in hydroxyl (–OH) groups. These functional groups promote extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonding, enabling starch gelatinization and film formation in aqueous systems. However, the same hydroxyl-rich structure confers a pronounced hydrophilic character, resulting in high moisture sensitivity, poor water vapor barrier properties, and limited dimensional stability under humid. Consequently, improving the hydrophobicity of starch-based films remains one of the most critical challenges for their practical application in food packaging. This review aims to summarize and critically discuss the main strategies reported for improving the hydrophobicity of starch-based films. The review focuses on composition and processing approaches, including (i) chemical modification of starch, (ii) incorporation of hydrophobic additives, (iii) reinforcement with natural fibers and nanocellulosic materials, (iv) polymer blending and multilayer/gradient architectures, and (v) processing strategies, including film homogenization, shear treatment and aging conditions. Emphasis is placed on the mechanisms governing hydrophobicity enhancement, comparative performance indicators, and current limitations. Full article

Biopolymers can be derived from biological sources, including protein blends with plasticizers, starch, enzymatic synthesis, microorganisms, and algae. They are classified into polynucleotides, polysaccharides, and polypeptides, including polyhydroxyalkanoates, polylactic acid, and thermoplastic starch. Blending polymers with plasticizers and nanoparticles enhances their mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties. Biopolymers have various applications, such as in packaging, textiles, medical devices, cosmetics, agriculture, food products, emulsifiers, construction additives, bioplastics, and biofuels. Some of the advantages of biopolymers include their biodegradability, use of renewable resources, and reduced environmental impact. Nevertheless, certain disadvantages persist, such as high production costs, inadequate waste management systems, material quality loss during recycling, and the limited availability of raw materials. In this context, castor oil has emerged as a promising raw material for biopolymer production, with notable applications in coatings and sealants, and, consequently, bioplastics have become a sustainable and feasible alternative to conventional plastics that aligns with the principles of the circular economy. Moreover, new biopolymers are constantly being developed, and innovative applications are increasingly being explored across industries. The aim of the present review is to analyze the potential of biopolymers as sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics by evaluating their sources, production methods, advantages, limitations, and applications. Full article

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) blended with biodegradable polyesters such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polylactic acid (PLA), polybutylene succinate (PBS), and polycaprolactone (PCL) represents a promising route toward sustainable alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. TPS offers advantages related to abundance, low cost, and biodegradability, while polyesters provide improved mechanical strength, thermal stability, and barrier performance. However, the intrinsic incompatibility between hydrophilic TPS and hydrophobic polyesters typically leads to immiscible systems with poor interfacial adhesion and limited performance. This review critically examines recent advances in the development of TPS/polyester blends, with emphasis on compatibilization strategies based on chemical modification, natural and synthetic compatibilizers, bio-based additives, and reinforcing agents. Particular attention is given to the role of organic acids, essential oils, phenolic compounds, nanofillers, and natural reinforcements in controlling morphology, crystallinity, interfacial interactions, and thermal–mechanical behavior. In addition, the contribution of bioactive additives to antimicrobial and antioxidant functionality is discussed as an emerging multifunctional feature of some TPS/polyester systems. Finally, current limitations related to long-term stability, scalability, and life cycle assessment are highlighted, identifying key challenges and future research directions for the development of advanced biodegradable materials with tailored properties. Full article

In response to the growing demand for environmentally friendly and sustainable yet functional technical textiles, this research developed a spun-bonded nonwoven from the biodegradable thermoplastic starch-based biopolymer BIOPLAST^®, incorporating fruit extracts as natural sources of polyphenolic compounds and surface-active additives. Extracts from Vaccinium myrtillus L. and Sambucus nigra L. were applied onto a nonwoven’s surface via aerographic spraying using a water/ethanol system. The resulting materials were characterized in terms of morphology, physicochemical and mechanical behavior, surface characteristics, and stability under accelerated ageing and hydrolytic conditions. Treatment with the extracts increased the tensile strength by roughly 38% and elongation at break by about 50%, and it changed the surface from hydrophobic (contact angle of 115°) to hydrophilic, with contact angles of 83° for the blueberry-modified nonwoven and 55° for the elderberry-modified nonwoven. The modified nonwovens also showed sustained release of polyphenolic compounds over 72 h, which is beneficial for biomedical, healthcare, and cosmetic applications, where short-term use, controlled release of active compounds, and bioactivity are more important than long-term durability. Overall, the results indicate that BIOPLAST^®-based spun-bonded nonwovens can serve as fully bio-based carriers for fruit extracts in MedTech-related technical textiles, offering a straightforward way to introduce additional functionality into biodegradable nonwovens. Full article

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) nanocomposites with unprecedentedly high loadings of up to 15 wt.% of the nano-clays Laponite (LAP; a synthetic product capable of good dispersion in suitable media) or Montmorillonite (MMT; modified with dialkyldimethylammonium chloride) were prepared by means of our new, two-step TPS preparation protocol. In both the TPS/LAP and TPS/MMT composites, we achieved perfect dispersion and extensive exfoliation of the nano-clays, resulting in pronounced improvements in mechanical performance (modulus increased up to one order of magnitude) and in excellent gas-barrier properties (extremely small permeabilities for O₂, CO₂, and even H₂). MMT, owing to its larger platelet size and to the formation of partially exfoliated multi-layer structures, generated a percolating filler network that provided particularly strong reinforcement, especially at 15 wt.% loading. LAP, though more completely exfoliated, generated a somewhat smaller mechanical reinforcement, but it more strongly increased processing viscosity due to its high specific surface area, which generated highly stable physical crosslinking that persisted even at processing temperatures of T ≥ 120 °C. Efficient matrix–filler interactions were confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis, where the better-exfoliated LAP generated a higher stabilization. The combination of strong mechanical reinforcement with outstanding gas-barrier properties makes the TPS/MMT and TPS/LAP nanocomposites attractive for food-packaging applications, where their natural origin, non-toxicity, bio-degradability, and abundance of nanocomposite components are an additional bonus. Full article

Biodegradable starch-based films often suffer from insufficient mechanical strength, which limits their practical applications. To enhance film performance, this study optimized the preparation of composite thermoplastic starch (CTPS) films composed of corn starch, sorbitol, whey protein isolate (WPI), and gallic acid (GA). The optimized formulation—0.074 g/mL corn starch, 47.5% sorbitol, 5.6% WPI, and 2.0 mg/mL GA—yielded films with a tensile strength of 3.11 ± 0.31 MPa and an elongation at break of 43.35 ± 0.69%, achieving a desirable balance between flexibility and strength. Mechanistic investigations using in situ Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and molecular docking revealed a ternary interaction system among starch, WPI, and GA. These components primarily interacted through hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces. Such non-covalent interactions enhanced the short-range molecular ordering of the starch matrix, stabilized the secondary structure of WPI, and facilitated water redistribution during film formation. The resulting interaction network among starch, proteins, and polyphenols significantly improved the mechanical properties and antioxidant capacity of the CTPS films. Full article

In this study, the authors focus on optimizing the processing parameters for the fabrication of biodegradable polymer filaments intended for subsequent 3D printing of biomedical structures and implants. Following extrusion and additive manufacturing, the produced materials underwent a comprehensive evaluation that included mechanical, microbiological, biofilm formation, and electron microscopy analyses. The complexity of these tests aimed to determine the potential of the developed materials for biomedical applications, particularly in the field of scaffold fabrication. At the initial stage, three types of filaments (technical designations 111, 145, and 146) were produced using Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) technology. These filaments were based on a PLA/PHB matrix with varying types and concentrations of plasticizers. Standardized destructive tensile and compressive mechanical tests were conducted using an MTS Insight 1 kN testing system equipped with an Instron 2620-601 extensometer. Among the tested samples, the filament labeled 111, composed of PLA/PHB thermoplastic starch and a plasticizer, exhibited the most favorable mechanical performance, with a Young’s modulus of elasticity of 4.63 MPa for 100% infill. The filament labeled 146 had a Young’s modulus of elasticity of 4.53 MPa for 100% infill and the material labeled 145 had a Young’s modulus of elasticity of 1.45 MPa for 100% infill. Microbiological assessments were performed to evaluate the capacity of bacteria and fungi to colonize the material surfaces. During bacterial activity assessment, we observed biofilm formation on the examined sample surfaces of each material from the smooth and rough sides. The colony-forming units (CFUs) increased directly with the exposure time. For all samples from each material, the Log10 (CFU) value reached above 9.41 during 72 h of incubation for the activity of each type of bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans). Scanning electron microscopy provided insight into the surface quality of the material and revealed its local quality and purity. Surface defects were eliminated by this method. Overall, the results indicate that the designed biodegradable filaments, especially formulation 111, have promising properties for the development of scaffolds intended for hard tissue replacement and could also be suitable for regenerative applications in the future after achieving the desired biological properties. Full article