Search Results (1,513)

Probabilities in sports forecasting are shaped by betting-market mechanisms, where expectations are exchanged through prices and transformed into implied probabilities. Although probabilistic predictions are usually treated as quantitative variables, rare events may be represented with lower resolution, making some probability ranges behave closer to ordinal structures. This paper investigates this hypothesis using NBA betting odds. We directly assess ordinality by examining the loss of linearity between implied probabilities and empirical outcome frequencies while evaluating whether monotonicity is preserved across probability ranges. The results show that low-probability odds deviate from the linear behavior expected under quantitative assumptions, while largely maintaining their ordinal ordering. The ordinal hypothesis is independently evaluated through a predictive experiment based on a Gated Recurrent Unit model. The model uses team-level temporal sequences as input features to predict the probability of a target game. We compare the behavior of the ordinal-aware CORAL loss across the analyzed subsets. The results suggest that the subset exhibiting ordinal characteristics attains a lower statistical risk under this ordinal inductive bias than the subset characterized by quantitative behavior. Finally, we discuss the broader applicability of comparative training with loss-function-induced inductive biases as a practical method for identifying the measurement level of target variables. Full article

Background/Objectives: Decreases in hamstring isometric strength have been observed post-competition, but research has currently focused only on soccer players. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to observe if acute reductions in isometric hamstring force production in elite male lacrosse players occur post-match. Methods: Peak isometric force measurements were collected from ten male outfielders from the British Lacrosse squad (24.6 ± 2.3 years, 1.80 ± 0.08 m, 86.3 ± 4.5 kg) using force plates. The 90:90 isometric assessment was conducted before and after a single sixes lacrosse match to observe changes in hamstring force production. Bayesian paired sample’s t-test and Hedge’s g effect sizes were used to determine the level of evidence and magnitude of fatigue due to sixes lacrosse match play. Results: A strong level of evidence with moderate–large effect sizes for reduced peak force was observed (Bayes factor [BF] = 11.36–12.55; g = 1.18–1.20). Stronger levels of evidence and large magnitude reductions were observed for force at 100 and 200 ms (BF = 18.92–61.85; g = 1.55–1.63). Conclusions: Sixes lacrosse match play results in localized hamstring fatigue, which could explain the high frequency of hamstring strain injuries within elite men’s sixes lacrosse players. The current sixes competition format includes multiple fixtures on a single day; therefore, practitioners need to prioritize recovery. Full article

This study aimed to investigate associations between training load (TL) calculated using the OMNI rating of perceived exertion scale (OMNI-RPE) and heart rate (HR) and velocity-derived measures of TL in non-elite adolescent team sport athletes. Fifty-four athletes participated in the study. The study was separated into two parts. In the Part A, twenty athletes completed both an easy and hard version of a simulated team game circuit outdoors on natural turf to replicate performance parameters often used in training. In part B, thirty-four different athletes completed a competitive team game played outdoors on synthetic/natural turf hockey or soccer pitches. For both Parts A and B, session OMNI TL (sOMNI-TL) was derived as a product of the session OMNI-RPE and session duration, and was correlated to Edward’s Training Impulse (TRIMP) and time spent in 0–25%, 25–50%, 50–70% and >70% peak velocity. Low-to-moderate correlations were observed between sOMNI-TL and Edwards TRIMP (r = 0.18–0.20) and velocity measures (r = 0.05–0.42) for Part A. Larger correlations were observed between sOMNI-TL and Edwards TRIMP (r = 0.53, p < 0.05) and velocity measures (r = 0.36–0.51, p < 0.05) for part B. The hypothesis that sOMNI-TL would show significant, moderate associations with heart rate and velocity-derived training load in both simulated and game conditions was only partially supported, and the results of this study do not support its use as a stand-alone measure in a practical setting. Full article

Background: SARS-CoV-2 infection may impair functional capacity in athletes, while prior vaccination status may be associated with post-infection functional status. However, evidence comparing objective post-infection exercise responses according to vaccination status in elite athletes remains limited. Methods: This study included a total of 220 male athletes with PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infections: 101 unvaccinated and 119 vaccinated with two doses prior to infection. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) was performed 14 ± 1 days after confirmation of SARS-CoV-2 infection and before the athletes returned to full training. A two-way ANOVA was conducted for each CPET variable, using vaccination status and sport as fixed factors. Results: After accounting for the type of sport, vaccinated athletes showed significantly higher VO₂max, VO₂ at VT1, oxygen pulse, heart rate at VT1, and heart rate at VT2, as well as lower VE/VCO₂ values. No significant differences were found for VEmax, HRmax, or heart rate during recovery. The interaction between vaccination status and sport was not significant for the main CPET outcomes, indicating a similar pattern in both sports. Conclusions: These findings suggest that prior vaccination is associated with a more favorable early post-infection physiological profile in professional team-sport players. Full article

Background: Creatinine normalization is the default adjustment for urine dilution in spot-urine monitoring of athletes, yet its appropriateness is seldom tested in field data. We tested whether it removes or introduces concentration dependence across a panel of urinary analytes in soccer players training in extreme heat and whether raw versus normalized values change the inferred response. Methods: Sixteen male soccer players (age 19.9 ± 0.8 y) provided spot urine at three daily time points (morning, pre-training, post-training) over six training days in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, glucose, urea nitrogen, uric acid, total protein, and creatinine were measured. For each analyte we quantified its scaling exponent with creatinine, the correlation of raw and normalized values with creatinine, and the within-day pattern on raw versus normalized values using linear mixed-effects models. Results: Urinary creatinine varied 22.7-fold (coefficient of variation 39%). Only protein and glucose scaled proportionally to creatinine (exponents ≈1.0) and normalized cleanly (ratio–creatinine r = −0.06 and −0.21). The remaining seven analytes, including all electrolytes, scaled weakly (exponents 0.16–0.49), so normalization over-corrected them, producing strong negative ratio–creatinine correlations (uric acid −0.74, sodium −0.59, chloride −0.55). For four of nine a the inferred within-day response differed in direction or significance between raw and normalized values; restricting creatinine to the recommended 0.3–3 g·L⁻¹ range attenuated but did not abolish the over-correction. Conclusions: Creatinine normalization suited protein and glucose but over-corrected every electrolyte and could reverse inferred responses. In this setting of hot-environment team-sport athletes, creatinine normalization should not be assumed adequate for electrolytes, which instead warrant interpretation against an independent index of urine concentration such as osmolality or specific gravity. Full article

Sprint mechanical profiling is widely used in team sports, yet the agreement between field-based measurement systems in indoor environments remains unclear. This study compared sprint mechanical outputs derived from a Kinexon local positioning system (LPS), radar, and laser during maximal indoor basketball sprints and examined their inter-system agreement and inter-trial reliability. Twenty-two elite youth basketball players performed maximal 28 m linear sprints recorded simultaneously using the three technologies. Sprint kinematics were modeled using a mono-exponential approach applied to the native signals provided by each system to derive theoretical maximal velocity (S₀), theoretical maximal acceleration (A₀), and acceleration time constant (Tau). Inter-system agreement was assessed using mean bias and 95% limits of agreement, while inter-trial reliability was evaluated using coefficients of variation (CV), change in the mean, and standard error of measurement. Radar and laser showed close agreement for S₀ (bias = −0.07 ± 0.17 m·s⁻¹; relative error = 0.89%), whereas LPS systematically overestimated S₀, with relative systematic errors of 5.26–6.49%. Acceleration-related parameters exhibited larger inter-system discrepancies, with relative errors up to 3.92% for A₀ and 10.55% for Tau. Inter-trial reliability was high across all systems (CV < 1.5% for S₀ and 3.7–4.7% for A₀ and Tau). These findings indicate that sprint mechanical outputs should not be used interchangeably across technologies, particularly for acceleration-related variables, although all systems remain suitable for within-system longitudinal monitoring in applied basketball settings. Full article

Aim: While voluntary Islamic intermittent fasting (IF) of three consecutive days (mimicking practices such as Ayyam al-Bid) may be observed by Muslim athletes, its short-term effects on cognitive function and sleep quality in adolescent team-sport athletes remain unexamined. This study investigated the impact of three successive days of dawn-to-sunset IF on memory, attention, psychomotor vigilance, and subjective sleep quality in young male soccer players. Methods: A quasi-experimental, parallel-group design was employed. Thirty-five male soccer players (age: 15.6 ± 0.8 years; body mass: 55.07 ± 6.53 kg) were allocated to an IF group (n = 17) or a non-fasting control group (n = 18). The fasting protocol comprised approximately 14 consecutive hours of complete food and fluid abstinence per day (from 04:40 to 18:36, with daily variations of −3 min for the dawn and +2 min for the sunset, local time). Cognitive function was assessed using the CogniFit Cognitive Assessment Battery (CAB) and the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT), and subjective well-being was quantified via the Hooper Index. Both assessment sessions were conducted between 14:00 and 17:00 to control for diurnal variation. Results: The Group × Time interaction for single-item subjective sleep quality reached nominal significance at the unadjusted threshold (Z = 2.18, p = 0.029, r = 0.37) but did not survive Bonferroni correction for the four Hooper Index comparisons (α = 0.0125); this result is therefore interpreted as hypothesis-generating only, reflecting a within-group deterioration in the control group (p < 0.05) alongside a non-significant marginal improvement in the fasting group. No statistically significant Group × Time interaction was detected for any memory subdomain (all p ≥ 0.419, r ≤ 0.14), attention component (all p > 0.176, r ≤ 0.23), or PVT parameter (all p > 0.192, η²p/r ≤ 0.22) under the present study conditions. Within-group improvements in memory and attention observed in both groups were consistent with test–retest learning effects. Conclusions: No statistically significant Group × Time interaction was detected for memory, attention-related executive functions, or psychomotor vigilance in young male soccer players under the present study conditions; the study was not designed as an equivalence or non-inferiority trial and cannot exclude effects smaller than the targeted medium magnitude, alongside a nominally divergent but statistically uncorrected sleep quality trajectory relative to non-fasting controls, which should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating pending replication. These findings provide preliminary, hypothesis-generating evidence that no statistically significant cognitive or psychomotor impairment was detected under the present study conditions; because the study was not designed as an equivalence or non-inferiority trial, compatibility between short-term voluntary IF and adolescent athletic training cannot be inferred from the absence of a significant interaction alone. Full article

Objectives: External load demands (ELD) for junior basketball players have primarily been investigated in senior championships, although the competition level influences the players’ performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the between-quarter and between-position differences for U19 basketball players in their age-related championship throughout a whole competitive season. Methods: Data were collected from fifteen Hungarian U19 basketball players across eight home games via the WIMU PRO^TM local positioning system (Hudl, Nebraska, United States of America). Linear mixed models were used to evaluate omnibus main effects and position × quarter interactions for high-intensity accelerations (HIA), decelerations (HID), Player Load (PL), and vertical jumps (JUM), using Bonferroni adjustments and exploratory simple comparisons (p < 0.05). Moreover, model-based mean differences (MBMM) were also calculated with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results: Significant game quarter omnibus main effect (F = 2.836, p = 0.043) and a borderline position × quarter interaction (F = 2.184, p = 0.050) were found in the JUM metric, with exploratory analyses revealing significant differences for centers between the second and third quarters and between the third and fourth quarters (p = 0.004, Mean Difference = −0.196, 95% CI = −0.345 to −0.046; p = 0.003, Mean Difference = 0.194, 95% CI = 0.049 to 0.338, respectively). A significant positional omnibus main effect (F = 4.917, p = 0.025) and a non-significant position × quarter interaction (F = 0.570, p = 0.753) was found for HID, with a significant difference between guards and forwards in the second quarter (p = 0.036, Mean Difference = 0.389, 95% CI = 0.019 to 0.742). PL and HIA did not show any significant differences. Conclusions: It is concluded that for the investigated sample, certain positional external load demands fluctuate between-quarter and between-position indicating that specific drills should be designed to maximize players’ performance and minimize their risk of injury. However, our results cannot be generalized due to the specificity of our dataset. Full article

Background: Sports training induces functional and structural adaptations that may influence body composition, particularly during adolescence when growth and maturation are still occurring. Although anthropometric characteristics have been extensively studied within individual sports, comparative analyses among different sport categories remain limited. The aim of this study was to compare body composition characteristics among athletes participating in individual, team, and combat sports within a Spanish Sports Technification Program. Methods: A total of 118 young athletes (62 males and 56 females) from the Valencian Sports Technification Centre participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants were classified into three sport categories: individual sports (athletics, swimming, and triathlon), team sports (handball and volleyball), and combat sports (karate and taekwondo). Anthropometric assessment was performed according to the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) protocol. Body composition variables, including fat mass, muscle mass, and bone mass, were estimated using established anthropometric equations. Statistical analyses were performed using non-parametric tests, with significance set at p < 0.05. Results: After adjustment for multiple comparisons, significant differences remained between sport categories for several body composition indicators. Athletes from the individual sport group showed a higher muscle mass percentage and lower body fat percentages estimated using the Withers, Faulkner, and Carter equations than those from the team sport group. Similarly, estimated body fat percentages were lower in the individual sport group than in the combat sport group across all three equations. Team sport athletes presented higher absolute fat and muscle mass than combat sport athletes. However, some differences identified in the initial analyses, including fat mass and bone mass percentage between the individual and team sport groups and muscle mass percentage between the team and combat sport groups, did not remain statistically significant after adjustment for multiple comparisons. Conclusions: Body composition characteristics differed among the groups of young athletes participating in the specific individual, team, and combat sports included in this study. Within this cohort, athletes from the individual sport group generally exhibited lower body fat levels than those from the team and combat sport groups, whereas differences were also observed in other anthropometric characteristics. These findings should be interpreted within the context of the specific sports included and should not be generalized to individual, team, or combat sports as a whole. The findings may assist coaches, sports scientists, and health professionals in the monitoring and development of young athletes participating in similar sports and development programs. Full article

There are a wide range of possible applications for the collection and analysis of statistical data in sports, although their potential has not yet been fully exploited. This study focuses on the areas in which cognitive computing systems can offer advantages for sports organizations. Furthermore, it explores the extent to which media companies can use artificial intelligence to evaluate unstructured data and provide better services. Six semi-structured interviews with experts from the fields of sports, media, and information technology were evaluated using qualitative content analysis. This revealed the need for companies in both industries to adapt to rapidly changing market conditions. The speed of decision-making can be increased by collecting and analyzing large amounts of data in real time. Furthermore, relationships can be derived that were previously hidden due to the cognitive limitations of the human brain. Based on the analysis of all dimensions of athletic ability and the facets of a player’s character, team performance can be improved. In addition, it is possible to assess the extent to which an athlete’s character is compatible with a team and with which teammates he or she is likely to be a better or worse fit. Media companies are enabled to provide sports organizations with insights from the use of cognitive applications and are transforming from media companies to service providers. Full article

Background: Match-related performance indicators have been widely studied in senior water polo, but evidence from Asian youth competitions remains limited. Objectives: This study aimed to identify the key performance indicators (KPIs) associated with winning and losing outcomes in the 2026 Asian U18 Men’s Water Polo Championship. Methods: This retrospective observational study analysed official technical statistics from all 21 decisive matches of the tournament held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, from 7 to 16 March 2026, yielding 42 team-match observations (21 winners and 21 losers). The dataset comprised seven national teams and 101 registered athletes; however, individual athlete anthropometric and sociodemographic data were unavailable because of data privacy restrictions imposed by the tournament organising committee and participating teams. Seven match-level performance variables were extracted from official records. Group differences were examined using independent-sample t-tests or Mann–Whitney U tests, with effect sizes quantified using Cohen’s d and bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals. Significant non-circular variables were entered into an exploratory binary logistic regression model. Results: Three variables significantly discriminated winners from losers: goals scored ($p<0.001$; $d=2.036$), won offensive plays (WOPs; centre-forward offensive confrontations resulting in maintained advantageous possession, an exclusion, or an immediate scoring opportunity; $p=0.004$; $d=1.026$), and power-play goals (PPGs; $p=0.022$; $d=0.816$). In the binary logistic regression model, WOPs remained the only significant independent correlate of match victory (OR = 2.734, 95% CI [1.156, 6.465], $p=0.022$), whereas PPGs were not independently significant after adjustment ($p=0.083$). Conclusions: Won offensive plays emerged as the most robust non-circular performance indicator associated with winning in this Asian U18 tournament sample. These findings offer tournament-specific evidence that centre-forward offensive-play effectiveness may inform competition analysis and coaching strategies in youth water polo. However, the results should be interpreted cautiously and replicated in future studies using standardised coding protocols and larger multi-tournament datasets. Full article

Background: Futsal is a high-intensity, intermittent team sport, yet laboratory protocols that reproduce its substitution-based running demands remain scarce. This study examined the physiological, neuromuscular, and perceptual responses to the Futsal Intermittent Treadmill Protocol (FITP), a laboratory-based protocol designed to replicate the intermittent high-intensity running demands of futsal. Methods: Ten male, national-level (Tier 3) futsal players completed four bouts of intermittent running (6–20 km·h⁻¹) reflecting typical substitution patterns. Measurements included oxygen consumption (VO₂), heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration ([BLa⁻]), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), total quality recovery (TQR), and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Responses were analyzed using one-way repeated-measures ANOVA. Results: HR and %HRmax increased significantly across bouts (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.84 for both), reaching values typical of competitive matches. Relative VO₂ and %VO₂max remained stable, while RPE increased and TQR decreased progressively (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.59–0.62). Blood lactate levels and the CMJ mechanical variables showed no significant changes, indicating no systematic neuromuscular fatigue pattern. Conclusions: The FITP induces substantial cardiovascular and perceptual strain that is physiologically comparable to high-intensity futsal, while metabolic and neuromuscular responses remain stable. The protocol may provide a controlled, repeatable method for assessing intermittent running tolerance; however, optimizing its role in physical evaluation, top-up conditioning, and return-to-play monitoring will benefit from future research confirming its ongoing consistency and field application. Full article

Background and Objectives: Evidence on the acute effects of caffeine in female team-sport athletes is limited. This study aimed to quantify the acute effects of caffeine on female team-sport athletes across physical performance, sport-specific performance, physiological responses, perceptual responses, and cognitive performance and determine moderators. Methods: PubMed and Web of Science were systematically searched for randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trials of acute, dose-defined caffeine in female team-sport athletes. Effect sizes were expressed as Hedges’ g and synthesized within each domain using a three-level CHE model with CR2 cluster-robust variance estimation and Satterthwaite degrees of freedom; 95% confidence intervals and prediction intervals were reported. Risk of bias (RoB 2), methodological quality (PEDro), and certainty of evidence (GRADE) were assessed. Results: Twenty-six studies were included, comprising 26 randomized, blind, placebo-controlled crossover trials. As a descriptive cross-domain summary, acute caffeine intake showed a small overall effect when all available domains were pooled (Hedges’ g = 0.24, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.35); however, because these domains represent different constructs, domain-specific estimates were considered the primary interpretable findings. For physical performance, caffeine showed a small favorable effect (g = 0.32, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.42), with statistical evidence for repeated sprint ability (g = 0.43), agility or change in direction (g = 0.42), sprint or speed performance (g = 0.39), anaerobic power (g = 0.30), and jumping performance (g = 0.29). For sport-specific performance, the pooled estimate indicated a small favorable effect but did not reach conventional statistical significance (g = 0.36, 95% CI: −0.01 to 0.73). Exploratory sub-indicator analyses, each based on only a few studies, suggested possible favorable directions for sport-specific locomotion or running performance (g = 0.46) and throwing or ball-speed outcomes (g = 0.19), whereas evidence was insufficient for shooting or scoring accuracy. Physiological outcomes were direction-aligned to the value conventionally regarded as favourable for each indicator (i.e., lower heart rate, lactate, and glucose), so that positive values denote the conventionally favourable direction; because the domain aggregates indicators of differing clinical desirability, its pooled value is a descriptive summary only and showed no clear domain-level direction (g = −0.05, 95% CI −0.31 to 0.21). The heart rate submetric showed a statistically detectable difference (g = −0.30), indicating that caffeine increased heart rate, the expected pharmacological response to a stimulant rather than an adverse effect; there were no clear effects on blood lactate or blood glucose. Perceptual responses improved modestly (g = 0.42), largely through reduced rating of perceived exertion (g = 0.35). Cognitive performance, based on only four studies with low degrees of freedom and wide uncertainty, showed a nonsignificant direction (g = 0.37) with no clear evidence for reaction time or cognitive accuracy, and these data should not be interpreted as showing that caffeine improves cognitive performance in female team-sport athletes. Exploratory moderator analyses did not provide statistically reliable evidence of moderation by caffeine dose, timing of intake, formulation or source, sport type, competitive level, habitual caffeine intake, or blinding status. Conclusions: Available evidence most consistently supports small, outcome-specific benefits of acute caffeine for physical performance and reduced perceived exertion. Evidence for sport-specific skills and cognitive outcomes remained uncertain, based on few studies per outcome and not supporting a general benefit. Current data do not support dose-, timing-, formulation-, habitual-intake-, sport-, or population-stratified recommendations. Future trials should be adequately powered, prospectively report menstrual-cycle phase, hormonal-contraceptive use, habitual caffeine intake, and adverse symptoms, and verify the integrity of blinding. Full article

Objective: To analyze, through a systematic review with meta-analysis, the acute effects of warm-up based on different types of stretching on physical performance in soccer players. Methods: The PRISMA guidelines were followed, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO. The search was conducted in PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL Complete, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science through June 2026. We included randomized and non-randomized controlled trials comparing warm-ups involving static, dynamic, or ballistic stretching against conventional warm-ups or active controls in healthy soccer players. Methodological quality was assessed using TESTEX, risk of bias using RoB 2, and certainty of evidence using GRADE. Effects were calculated using Hedges’ g with random-effects models. Results: Six studies were included, resulting in a limited evidence base. Different types of stretching were reported, with dynamic stretching producing favorable effects on countermovement jump performance compared with control conditions (ES = 0.555; 95% CI: 0.306 to 0.804; p < 0.001) and on 10 m sprint performance (ES = 0.397; 95% CI: 0.191 to 0.603; p < 0.001). For the 30 m sprint, dynamic stretching showed a favorable but non-significant effect (ES = 0.328; 95% CI: −0.258 to 0.914; p = 0.273), with substantial heterogeneity. Dynamic stretching also showed a favorable but imprecise and non-significant effect on dominant-foot ball-kicking speed (ES = 2.496; 95% CI: −2.240 to 7.232; p = 0.302). Ballistic stretching improved countermovement jump performance compared with control conditions (p < 0.001), whereas static stretching showed trivial, inconsistent, or unfavorable effects, including a small adverse effect on 10 m sprint performance (ES = −0.209; 95% CI: −0.398 to −0.019; p = 0.031). Heterogeneity ranged from moderate to substantial, and the GRADE certainty of evidence was low because of serious risk of bias and inconsistency. Conclusions: Dynamic stretching may acutely improve selected explosive performance outcomes in soccer players; however, the low certainty of evidence and substantial heterogeneity preclude definitive recommendations. Full article

Background: Nutrition knowledge (NK) may influence dietary behaviours and athlete health; however, limited research has examined the relationship between NK and risk of low energy availability (LEA) in female team sport athletes. Objective: This study aimed to assess NK and LEA risk in female Ladies Gaelic Football (LGF) players and to examine the relationship between these variables. Results: Female LGF players (n = 58) aged 18–35 years completed a 75-item online questionnaire comprising the Abridged Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire (ANSKQ) and the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q). Mean total ANSKQ score was 53.1 ± 7.6%, categorized as “average”, while the mean sport nutrition knowledge (SNK) score was 48.2 ± 8.5%, categorized as “poor”. Lower micronutrient knowledge scores were observed among younger players and those with lower educational attainment (p < 0.05), while players with prior nutrition education demonstrated greater supplement-related knowledge (p < 0.05). Overall, 56.9% of the participants were classified as being at risk of LEA according to LEAF-Q criteria. LEA risk differed according to playing level and nutrition education status (p < 0.05); however, no association between overall NK and LEA risk was identified. Players identified as being at risk of LEA also demonstrated greater menstrual dysfunction and injury-related absence. Conclusions: These findings indicate a high prevalence of LEA risk and suboptimal sport NK among female LGF players and suggest that NK alone may be insufficient to protect against LEA risk in female team sport athletes. Ongoing screening, nutrition education, and broader athlete support strategies are therefore warranted in this population. Full article