Search Results (21)

A capacitive six-axis force/torque (F/T) sensor has favorable characteristics for miniature design. However, when designing small-sized force/torque sensors, anisotropy among the six axes can lead to uneven sensitivity across each axis. This is due to increased crosstalk errors, which degrade sensor performance. To design a miniature six-axis force/torque sensor, it is essential to analyze the isotropic relationships between the six-axis forces/torques and the capacitance change to reduce crosstalk errors. This paper presents a miniature capacitive six-axis F/T sensor optimized for isotropy. It also establishes a systematic method for designing sensing electrodes. The sensor’s deformable structure is analyzed using Castigliano’s beam theory, and design parameters are optimized with isotropy analysis of the deformable part. The criteria are also presented, including selecting the electrode area and initial gap using linear equations derived from capacitance change analysis. The optimized miniature F/T sensor is calibrated using a neural network-based calibration method, and its accuracy errors are compared to a reference sensor. The design framework provides a foundation for future developments in miniature sensors. Full article

This study introduces a novel calibration method for accurate external wrench measurement using a six-axis FT (force–torque) sensor. We propose a sensor model and calibration method for FT sensors that enable precise separation of the force and torque components without the need for additional devices or sensors by estimating essential parameters: bias, crosstalk, CoM (center of mass), and inclination. By directly utilizing manufacturer-provided data, our approach eliminates the complexities of traditional calibration processes while achieving higher accuracy in force–torque measurements. This method simplifies the calibration workflow and enhances the practicality of FT sensor applications. A mobile manipulator installed with an FT sensor and a gripper is used to demonstrate calibration effectiveness across varying postures and incline conditions, with non-linear optimization based on the gradient descent method applied to minimize sensor-data errors. The tilt of the base is implemented by placing a step under the wheels of the mobile base to simulate roll or pitch scenarios. A digital level was used to measure the angle and verify that our predicted results were accurate. The proposed method addresses typical calibration challenges, including the effects of the end tool and base incline, which are not commonly covered in existing methods. The results show that, on a non-inclined base, crosstalk and CoM calibration reduces the MSE (mean squared error) by 55.8%, 56.2%, and 14.5% for the external force with respect to data without any calibration conducted. On an inclined base, our full calibration process reduces the MSE by a maximum of 98.6% for external mass measurement with respect to no calibration method applied. These findings highlight the importance of incline calibration for achieving accurate external force estimations, especially in mobile manipulator applications where the environment frequently changes. Full article

With the advancement of manufacturing, the precision requirements for various high-precision processing equipment and instruments have further increased. Due to its noncontact nature, simple structure, and controllable performance, electromagnetic levitation has broad application prospects in ultra-precision instruments and ground testing of aerospace equipment. Research on vibration isolation technology using electromagnetic levitation is imperative. This paper reviews the latest research achievements of three types of passive isolators and five active isolation actuators. It also summarizes the current research status of analytical methods for passive isolators and the impact of isolator layout. This study explores current isolators’ achievements, such as the development of passive isolators that generate negative stiffness and require mechanical springs for uniaxial translational vibrations, single-function actuators, and control systems focused on position and motion vibration control. Based on the current isolators’ characteristics, this review highlights future developments, including focusing on passive isolators for heavy loads and multi-axis isolation, addressing complex vibrations, including rotational ones, and developing methods to calculate forces and torques for arbitrary six-DOF movements while improving speed. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of multifunctional actuators to simplify system structures and comprehensive control systems that consider more environmental factors. This provides significant reference value for vibration isolation technology using electromagnetic levitation. Full article

Real-time multi-axis distributed tactile sensing is a critical capability if robots are to perform stable gripping and dexterous manipulation, as it provides crucial information about the sensor–object interface. In this paper, we present an optical-based six-axis tactile sensor designed in a fingertip shape for robotic dexterous manipulation. The distributed sensor can precisely estimate the local XYZ force and displacement at ten distinct locations and provide the global XYZ force and torque measurements. Its compact size, comparable to that of a human thumb, and minimal thickness allow seamless integration onto existing robotic fingers, eliminating the need for complex modifications to the gripper. The proposed sensor design uses a simple, low-cost fabrication method. Moreover, the optical transduction approach uses light angle and intensity sensing to infer force and displacement from deformations of the individual sensing units that form the overall sensor, providing distributed six-axis sensing. The local force precision at each sensing unit in the X, Y, and Z axes is 20.89 mN, 19.19 mN, and 43.22 mN, respectively, over a local force range of approximately ±1.5 N in X and Y and 0 to −2 N in Z. The local displacement precision in the X, Y, and Z axes is 56.70 μm, 50.18 μm, and 13.83 μm, respectively, over a local displacement range of ±2 mm in the XY directions and 0 to −1.5 mm in Z (i.e., compression). Additionally, the sensor can measure global torques, $T_x$, $T_y$, and $T_z$, with a precision of of 1.90 N-mm, 1.54 N-mm, and 1.26 N-mm, respectively. The fabricated design is showcased by integrating it with an OnRobot RG2 gripper and illustrating real-time measurements during in simple demonstration task, which generated changing global forces and torques. Full article

A personal-computer-based and a Raspberry Pi single-board computer-based virtual force sensor with EtherCAT communication for a six-axis robotic arm are proposed in this paper. Both traditional mathematical modeling and machine learning techniques are used in the establishment of the dynamic model of the robotic arm. Thanks to the high updating rate of EtherCAT, the machine learning-based dynamic model on a personal computer achieved an average correlation coefficient between the estimated torque and the actual torque feedback from the motor driver of about 0.99. The dynamic model created using traditional mathematical modeling and the Raspberry Pi single-board computer demonstrates an approximate correlation coefficient of 0.988 between the estimated torque and the actual torque. The external torque observer is established by calculating the difference between the actual torque and the estimated torque, and the virtual force sensor converts the externally applied torques calculated for each axis to the end effector of the robotic arm. When detecting external forces applied to the end effector, the virtual force sensor demonstrates a correlation coefficient of 0.75 and a Root Mean Square Error of 12.93 N, proving its fundamental competence for force measurement. In this paper, both the external torque observer and the virtual force control are applied to applications related to sensing external forces of the robotic arm. The external torque observer is utilized in the safety collision detection mechanism. Based on experimental results, the system can halt the motion of the robotic arm using the minimum external force that the human body can endure, thereby ensuring the operator’s safety. The virtual force control is utilized to implement a position and force hybrid controller. The experimental results demonstrate that, under identical control conditions, the position and force hybrid controller established by the Raspberry Pi single-board computer achieves superior control outcomes in a constant force control scenario with a pressure of 40 N. The average absolute error is 9.62 N, and the root mean square error is 11.16 N when compared to the target pressure. From the analysis of the results, it can be concluded that the Raspberry Pi system implemented in this paper can achieve a higher control command update rate compared to personal computers. As a result, it can provide greater control benefits in position and force hybrid control. Full article

In this paper, the problem of making a safe compliant contact between a human and an assistive robot is considered. Users with disabilities have a need to utilize their assistive robots for physical human–robot interaction (PHRI) during certain activities of daily living (ADLs). Specifically, we propose a hybrid force/velocity/attitude control for a PHRI system based on measurements from a six-axis force/torque sensor mounted on the robot wrist. While automatically aligning the end-effector surface with the unknown environmental (human) surface, a desired commanded force is applied in the normal direction while following desired velocity commands in the tangential directions. A Lyapunov-based stability analysis is provided to prove both the convergence as well as passivity of the interaction to ensure both performance and safety. Simulation as well as experimental results verify the performance and robustness of the proposed hybrid controller in the presence of dynamic uncertainties as well as safe physical human–robot interactions for a kinematically redundant robotic manipulator. Full article

The Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV), which has an inward-tilting angle, turns with lateral force due to a large camber angle, so it is necessary to consider the lateral movement of the tire vertical load axis during turning. Although the steering torque mechanisms are very different from those of automobiles, there are not many studies of the steering torque mechanisms of PMVs. In this paper, based on the effects of the force of six components acting on the tires, a method for setting the steering axis specifications is derived, including the geometrical minimization of steering moment disturbance due to the vertical load reaction force during turning. Automobile tires have a significant ground camber angle when traveling on rutted roads, but they do not have it on slanted roads because the vehicle body tilts along the road surface. On the other hand, in PMVs, the vehicle body always keeps upright when traveling both on slanted roads and on rutted roads. Therefore, the tires have ground camber angles on both types of road surface. We study the straight running ability under such road surface disturbances based on the geometrical minimization of steering moment disturbance due to the vertical load reaction force during turning. This straight running ability can be a remarkable strong point of PMVs with an inward tilt mechanism. In this study, it was proved that the steering axis parameters can be derived uniquely by taking into consideration the requirement to zero the moment (disturbance) around the steering axis due to the reaction force against the vertical load at all internal tilt angles. Full article

Laparoscopic procedures have become indispensable in gastrointestinal surgery. As a minimally invasive process, it begins with primary trocar insertion. However, this step poses the threat of injuries to the gastrointestinal tract and blood vessels. As such, the comprehension of the insertion process is crucial to the development of robotic-assisted/automated surgeries. To sustain robotic development, this research aims to study the interactive force/torque (F/T) behavior between the trocar and the abdomen during the trocar insertion process. For force/torque (F/T) data acquisition, a trocar interfaced with a six-axis F/T sensor was used by surgeons for the insertion. The study was conducted during five abdominal hernia surgical cases in the Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University. The real-time F/T data were further processed and analyzed. The fluctuation in the force/torque (F/T) parameter was significant, with peak force ranging from 16.83 N to 61.86 N and peak torque ranging from 0.552 Nm to 1.76 Nm. The force parameter was observed to positively correlate with procedural time, while torque was found to be negatively correlated. Although during the process a surgeon applied force and torque in multiple axes, for a robotic system, the push and turn motion in a single axis was observed to be sufficient. For minimal tissue damage in less procedural time, a system with low push force and high torque was observed to be advantageous. These understandings will eventually benefit the development of computer-assisted or robotics technology to improve the outcome of the primary trocar insertion procedure. Full article

Six-axis force/torque sensors are widely installed in manipulators to help researchers achieve closed-loop control. When manipulators work in comic space and deep sea, the adverse ambient environment will cause various degrees of damage to F/T sensors. If the disability of one or two dimensions is restored by self-restoration methods, the robustness and practicality of F/T sensors can be considerably enhanced. The coupling effect is an important characteristic of multi-axis F/T sensors, which implies that all dimensions of F/T sensors will influence each other. We can use this phenomenon to speculate the broken dimension by other regular dimensions. Back propagation neural network (BPNN) is a classical feedforward neural network, which consists of several layers and adopts the back-propagation algorithm to train networks. Hyperparameters of BPNN cannot be updated by training, but they impact the network performance directly. Hence, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is adopted to tune the hyperparameters of BPNN. In this work, each dimension of a six-axis F/T sensor is regarded as an element in the input vector, and the relationships among six dimensions can be obtained using optimized BPNN. The average MSE of restoring one dimension and two dimensions over the testing data is $1.1693\times {10}^{-5}$ and $3.4205\times {10}^{-5}$, respectively. Furthermore, the average quote error of one restored dimension and two restored dimensions are $8.800{\times 10}^{-3}$ and $8.200{\times 10}^{-3}$, respectively. The analysis of experimental results illustrates that the proposed fault restoration method based on PSO-BPNN is viable and practical. The F/T sensor restored using the proposed method can reach the original measurement precision. Full article

This study investigates the visual servo control of the space station macro/micro manipulator system. The proposed approach is based on the position-based eye-in-hand visual servo (PBVS) and takes advantage of the hardware sensors to overcome the macro manipulator’s base flexibility and joint backlash. First, a vibration suppression approach based on the reaction force feedback control is proposed, the deflection forces are measured by the six-axis force/torque sensor at the base of the micro-manipulator, and damping is injected into the flexible base in the closed-loop control to suppress the base vibration. Second, the small changes of joint backlash are compensated based on the macro manipulator joint angles sensor and converted to the desired motion of the payloads. Finally, PBVS with the lag correction is proposed, which is adequate for the precise positioning of large payloads with significant low-frequency oscillations. Ground micro-gravity experiment implementation is discussed, simulations and experiments are carried out based on the equivalent 3-DOF flexible base manipulator system and the macro/micro manipulator ground facilities, and results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control algorithm. Full article

The performance of a six-axis force/torque sensor (F/T sensor) severely decreased when working in an extreme environment due to its sensitivity to ambient temperature. This paper puts forward an ensemble temperature compensation method based on the whale optimization algorithm (WOA) tuning the least-square support vector machine (LSSVM) and trimmed bagging. To be specific, the stimulated annealing algorithm (SA) was hybridized to the WOA to solve the local entrapment problem, and an adaptive trimming strategy is proposed to obtain the optimal trim portion for the trimmed bagging. In addition, inverse quote error (invQE) and cross-validation are employed to estimate the fitness better in training process. The maximum absolute measurement error caused by temperature decreased from $3.34\%$ to $3.9\times {10}^{-3}\%$ of full scale after being compensated by the proposed method. The analyses of experiments illustrate the ensemble hWOA-LSSVM based on improved trimmed bagging improves the precision and stability of F/T sensors and possesses the strengths of local search ability and better adaptability. Full article

A novel six-axis force/torque sensor (F/T sensor) for an Experimental Module Manipulator (EMM) in the Chinese Space Station (CSS) is developed in this paper. First, we designed the elastomer structure of the F/T sensor and used the analytical method and the finite element method to analyze the strain, in order to accomplish the strain gauges’ layout. Then, the electrical system was designed, which mainly realizes the acquisition of force/torque information, temperature and serial communication with the end effector (EE). Following this, we analyzed and designed the adaptability of the F/T sensor to the space environment. After this, the manufacturing process of the sensor was introduced in detail, and the F/T sensor was calibrated by a pulley weight system. Finally, the sensor was tested on the space environment adaptability of mechanical vibration and thermal vacuum on the ground. The test results show that the developed sensor has the ability to accurately measure three-dimensional force and three-dimensional moment information on orbit, which provides necessary conditions for the on-orbit fine operation of EMM. Full article

This study proposes a parallel six-axis force/torque sensor decoupling method based on an independent component analysis (ICA), and the experimental platform is built for experimental exploration. First of all, the structural model and mathematical model of the parallel six-axis force/torque sensor are introduced, which is composed of single-dimensional force sensors with central symmetry. Secondly, the test prototype was developed and a test platform was built to perform online static loading test on the sensor, and the test results were analyzed. Finally, the ICA-based dynamic decoupling study of the sensor is carried out, the effectiveness and rationality of the proposed algorithm are proved. The research results of this paper have certain reference values for the further study of the decoupling of parallel six-axis force/torque sensors. Full article

Visuo-haptic mixed reality (VHMR) adds virtual objects to a real scene and enables users to see and also touch them via a see-through display and a haptic device. Most studies with kinesthetic feedback use general-purpose haptic devices, which require the user to continuously hold an attached stylus. This approach constrains users to the mechanical limits of the device even when it is not needed. In this paper, we propose a novel VHMR concept with an encountered-type haptic display (ETHD), which consists of a precision hexapod positioner and a six-axis force/torque transducer. The main contribution is that the users work with unbound real-life tools with tracking markers. ETHD’s end-effector remains inside the virtual object and follows the tooltip to engage only during an interaction. We have developed a simulation setup and experimentally evaluated the relative accuracy and synchronization of the three major processes, namely tool tracking, haptic rendering, and visual rendering. The experiments successfully build-up to a simple simulation scenario where a tennis ball with a fixed center is deformed by the user. Full article

The biomechanics of a golf swing have been of interest to golfers, instructors, and biomechanists. In addition to the complexity of the three-dimensional (3D) dynamics of multi-segments of body, the closed-chain body posture as a result of both hands holding a club together makes it difficult to fully analyze the 3D kinetics of a golf swing. To identify the hand-grip joint force and torque applied by each hand, we directly measured the 3D internal grip force of nine registered professional golfers using an instrumented grip. A six-axis force-torque sensor was connected to a custom-made axially separated grip, which was then connected to a driver shaft using a manufactured screw thread. Subjects participated in two sessions of data collection featuring five driver swings with both a regular and customized sensor-embedded grip, respectively. Internal grip force measurement and upper limb kinematics were used to calculate the joint force and torque of the nine-linkage closed-chain of the upper limb and club using 3D inverse dynamics. Direct measurement of internal grip forces revealed a threefold greater right-hand torque application compared to the left hand, and counterforce by both hands was also found. The joint force and torque of the left arm tended to precede that of the right arm, the majority of which had peaks around the impact and showed a larger magnitude than that of the left arm. Due to the practical challenge of measuring internal force, heuristic estimation methods based on club kinematics showed fair approximation. Our results suggest that measuring the internal forces of the closed-chain posture could identify redundant joint kinetics and further propose a heuristic approximation. Full article