Search Results (657)

Lithium has become one of the key raw materials for the energy transition due to the central role of lithium-ion batteries in electromobility, energy storage, and the integration of renewable energy sources. However, the rapid increase in demand reveals growing environmental, social, geopolitical, and market tensions. The aim of the paper is a critical synthesis of global lithium utilization from the perspective of challenges, technological innovations, and integrative strategies supporting a more sustainable material–energy system. A broad, systematic literature review covering the entire value chain was applied: resources, extraction, processing, end-use applications, second life of batteries, recycling, and governance. The analysis shows that the strategic importance of lithium arises from the increasing demand pressure from electric vehicles and stationary storage, while the sustainability of the current model is constrained by supply concentration, uneven control over downstream stages, the water–carbon footprint of extraction and processing, social conflicts, and incomplete integration of secondary loops. At the same time, innovations such as direct lithium extraction (DLE), recovery from geothermal brines, design for recycling, second life, and battery passports can partially alleviate these tensions, but they do not eliminate the need for primary supply in the short term. The conclusion of the work is that sustainable global lithium utilization requires simultaneous diversification of sources, development of circular value chains, and multi-level governance integrating resource security, environmental efficiency, and social legitimacy. Full article

The increasing demand for lithium (Li), cobalt (Co), and rare earth elements (REEs) driven by battery technologies, electrification and renewable energy systems has intensified the interest in recovery pathways as an alternative to conventional mining. High-salinity mine waters—including lithium brines, geothermal fluids, and metallurgical effluents—represent both an environmental liability and a significant secondary resource for metal recovery. However, extreme ionic strength, complex metal speciation, and strong competition from major ions severely limit the efficiency and selectivity of traditional extraction technologies. Microalgae and cyanobacteria are promising biological agents for metal recovery via biosorption, bioaccumulation, and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS)-mediated binding, especially in saline and hypersaline systems. This review synthesises current knowledge on microalgal-based recovery of Li, Co, and REEs from high-salinity waters, emphasising co-design principles that integrate strain physiology, their adaptation to the extreme operating conditions, water chemistry, and process engineering. Halotolerant and extremophilic taxa—Nannochloropsis oceanica, Galdieria sulphuraria, and Synechococcus elongatus—are examined as representative models for complementary metal-binding mechanisms and operational niches. Limitations such as weak affinity for lithium, competitive ion suppression, desorption inefficiencies, and scale-up challenges are discussed. Emerging strategies such as modular multi-strain systems, hybrid bio-physicochemical platforms, and biomass valorisation are also addressed. The review concludes that microalgal systems, when co-designed for selectivity and resilience, can contribute to the strategic recovery of critical materials that align with EU, UK and US policies. Full article

Accurate prediction of external short-circuit (ESC) current is important for battery safety analysis and protection design, but conventional equivalent circuit models have difficulty reproducing the strongly nonlinear current evolution under ESC conditions. This study proposes a reaction-process-corrected second-order RC model for ESC current prediction, based on ESC experiments on a 37 Ah commercial NCM pouch cell at different initial SOCs. The ESC process is described by three successive stages: bottleneck control, concentration-difference control, and separator pore closure. To represent the transport-related resistance deviation during this process, an additional correction resistance R_x and a queued-charge descriptor Q are introduced into the equivalent circuit framework. A segmented closed-loop simulation strategy is then developed to update R_x and predict the ESC current. Using the 50% SOC case as an unseen validation case, the proposed model captures the main nonlinear characteristics of ESC current, including rapid initial decay, secondary rebound, and subsequent attenuation. The proposed framework improves the physical interpretability of equivalent-circuit-based ESC simulation while retaining engineering simplicity, providing a practical approach for safety-boundary assessment and protection-oriented battery system design. Full article

The increasing penetration of renewable energy sources introduces significant variability, low-inertia behaviour, and operational uncertainty into modern power systems, resulting in frequent frequency deviations and degraded dynamic stability. Conventional Load Frequency Control (LFC) approaches based on fixed-parameter PID controllers often exhibit limited disturbance rejection capability under nonlinear and stochastic operating conditions. This study proposes an enhanced LFC framework that integrates a PID controller optimised using the Flower Pollination Algorithm (FPA) with support from a Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and a Redox Flow Battery (RFB) to improve frequency regulation, damping, and robustness in renewable-integrated low-inertia power systems. This study developed a MATLAB/Simulink single-area power system model comprising governor, turbine, and generator-load dynamics to evaluate controller performance under a 0.01 pu step disturbance, stochastic load variations, renewable energy fluctuations, and ±20% parameter uncertainty conditions. The FPA optimally tuned the PID controller gains using the Integral Time Absolute Error criterion to enhance transient response and disturbance rejection capability. Comparative analyses were conducted against conventional PID and fuzzy-based controllers using settling time, overshoot, RMS deviation, ITAE, and mean frequency deviation indices. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed FPA–PID + UPFC framework significantly outperforms the conventional PID controller by achieving approximately 66.6% settling-time reduction, 72.1% RMS reduction, and 75.5% ITAE reduction. The proposed framework reduced settling time from 18.46 s to 6.16 s and substantially improved damping performance under stochastic disturbances. The coordinated integration of the UPFC and RFB further enhanced transient stability through dynamic power-flow regulation and rapid active-power compensation during disturbances. Sensitivity analysis under parameter uncertainty and stochastic operating conditions confirmed stable and reliable operation under stochastic disturbances and parameter uncertainty conditions. The proposed architecture, therefore, provides an effective, practically applicable solution for secondary frequency regulation in renewable-rich smart grids, low-inertia transmission systems, microgrids, and future distributed power networks. Full article

Nature provides efficient strategies for fluid transport and thermal regulation through evolved structural features. This review summarizes recent progress in biomimetic thermal–fluid structures for enhancing fluid flow and heat transfer, with emphasis on the links among biological inspiration, engineering geometry, transport mechanisms, and application performance. Representative designs are classified into tree-like branching and fractal networks, compact hexagonal layouts, and bio-inspired curved morphologies, including riblets, grooves, fins, fluctuating channels, and TPMS structures. Their enhancement mechanisms involve flow redistribution, boundary-layer disturbance, secondary-flow and vortex generation, local acceleration, enlarged heat-transfer area, drag reduction, and compact flow organization. Applications using biomimetic structures are assessed in detail, such as in battery thermal management, electronic cooling, etc. The reviewed studies indicate that biomimetic structures can improve temperature uniformity, suppress hotspots, and enhance thermohydraulic performance, but the gains may be accompanied by pressure-drop or pumping-power penalties. Therefore, coupled thermal–hydraulic evaluation is essential for objective comparison. Key challenges of practical usage are identified in mechanism-based design, manufacturability, reliability, etc. This work establishes the guidance for translating biological forms into practical thermal–fluid structures with balanced efficacy. Full article

Phytoremediation is a sustainable approach for the remediation of heavy metal–contaminated soils; however, the management of contaminated biomass generated during this process remains an insufficiently addressed challenge. Such biomass constitutes a secondary waste stream that may release mobile pollutants and pose environmental risks. In this study, an integrated ecotoxicological assessment framework was applied to evaluate phytoremediation-derived biomass and its transformation products obtained via pyrolysis. Two types of woody biomass with different heavy metal contents and their corresponding biochars produced at 700 °C were investigated. A multitrophic battery of bioassays combining direct exposure assays using terrestrial organisms (higher plants, Eisenia fetida, and soil microbial activity) with leachate-based assays using aquatic organisms (Lemna minor, Daphnia magna, and Aliivibrio fischeri) was applied. Untreated biomass exhibited high to extreme toxicity in aquatic systems (toxic units, TU >100) and significant phytotoxic effects. Pyrolysis substantially reduced contaminant mobility and ecotoxicity of leachates, resulting in lower toxicity (TU typically <15) and no significant effects on plant growth, earthworm survival, or soil microbial functional diversity. Residual toxicity was linked to elevated pH and trace amounts of thermally generated organic substances. These results demonstrate that pyrolysis effectively reduces the environmental risk of contaminated biomass and supports the use of multitrophic ecotoxicological testing for safe waste valorization within circular economy strategies. Full article

Lithium-ion batteries with high energy density and long cycle life have been widely used as secondary batteries in electric vehicles and energy storage systems. With the growing demand for high energy density in lithium-ion batteries, silicon-based materials, which possess a high theoretical specific capacity (4200 mAh g⁻¹), are regarded as core candidates for anode materials. However, Si-based materials undergo severe volume expansion (up to 300%), which leads to the collapse of the electrode structure, inducing pulverization of the active material and capacity loss, thereby hindering the commercial application of silicon-based materials. To address these issues, scholars from various countries have developed many silicon-based materials with different compositions and three-dimensional structures, and have made some research progress. This review first elaborates on the lithium storage mechanisms and advantages of diverse silicon-based anode materials by taking Si, SiO_x, SiN_x, and SiP_x as representative examples with distinct characteristics. Subsequently, from the two aspects of dimensional design (0D, 1D, 2D and 3D) and architecture design (core–shell, sandwich-like and network structure), the design strategies for various silicon-based anode structures and their enhancement on electrochemical performance are analyzed. Finally, this review elucidated the challenges faced by silicon-based anodes from the perspectives of mechanism elucidation, structural customization, industrialization, and full-cell applications. It also proposed future development directions for silicon anodes by combining actual challenges and focusing on aspects such as structure optimization, machine learning, advanced characterization techniques, and mechanistic analysis. Full article

The adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as secondary rechargeable batteries across many industries, including consumer electronics, electromobility, industrial tools, and electrical energy storage, is on the rise. As lithium-ion batteries approach the end of their life, there is a need to assess them for the possibility of a secondary application or reuse for a less demanding application. The extra connections of individual cells, BMS, temperature sensors, and other components to form a compact battery pack pose a challenge for second-life assessment, which usually prefers to separate individual cells for testing before discarding very bad cells for recycling and grading cells with substantive capacity based on their remaining capacity. This is a high cost for the second-life assessment. This work seeks to investigate an approach that avoids dismantling the battery pack into individual modules, cells, and BMS by including a BMS feature that allows the capacity and power ratings to be rescaled onboard after its first use. A set of cells with different chemistries was used in this work: a nickel–cobalt–aluminium oxide cathode with a silicon-doped graphite anode (NCA-GS), a nickel–cobalt–aluminium oxide cathode and graphite, and a lithium–nickel–manganese–cobalt oxide (NMC) cathode with a graphite anode (NMC-G) with various ageing states and behaviours. Their internal resistance and capacity at the beginning and end of life were compared. The scaling factor was obtained by finding the square root of the ratio of the internal resistance at EOL to that at BOL. With the current obtained by multiplying the cycling current rate by the rescaling factor, the surface temperature profile of the aged cells during cycling became the same as the temperature at the beginning of life. The relaxation voltage after discharge to 0% SOC and charge to 100% SOC was used to set the low and high cut-off voltages, respectively. This contributed significantly to reduced ageing and to a lower temperature rise in the spent cells. This set the stage for rescaling or derating battery systems without separating the individual cells, which is a huge cost for second-life use of lithium-ion batteries. BMS can be designed with configurable voltage and current limits, so that when repurposed for a second life, only a simple configuration or firmware update may be necessary. Full article

Background/Objectives: Short-term functional outcomes after outpatient pulmonary rehabilitation are heterogeneous. We examined whether a study-derived cardio-nutrition-inflammation-oxygen (CNIO) index integrating echocardiographic filling pressure, nutritional status, inflammation, and oxygen requirement was associated with 3-month functional outcomes in chronic respiratory disease. Methods: This single-center retrospective cohort study included 60 adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, interstitial lung disease, or bronchiectasis who completed outpatient pulmonary rehabilitation and had baseline and 3-month functional assessments. The CNIO index was calculated as standardized E/e′ plus standardized ln(neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio) plus standardized resting oxygen flow rate minus standardized Geriatric Nutritional Risk Index, and the summed score was then standardized to mean 0 and SD 1. The primary outcome was 3-month 6 min walk test (6MWT) distance, and the exploratory secondary outcome was 3-month Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) score. The primary 6MWT analysis used multivariable analysis of covariance adjusted for baseline 6MWT, age, sex, body mass index, and diagnosis, whereas the exploratory SPPB analysis used ordinal logistic regression adjusted for baseline SPPB and the same covariates. Results: Mean 6MWT increased from 340.3 ± 61.0 m to 368.0 ± 102.0 m, corresponding to a mean change of 27.7 ± 90.3 m. Each 1-SD increase in CNIO was associated with a lower 3-month 6MWT distance (β = −43.42 m; 95% confidence interval [CI], −77.55 to −9.30; p = 0.014). In the exploratory ordinal logistic regression model for SPPB, each 1-SD increase in CNIO was associated with lower odds of being in a higher 3-month SPPB category, although the estimate was fragile and the confidence interval was close to the null (odds ratio = 0.39; 95% CI, 0.15 to 0.99; p = 0.048). Bootstrap internal stability analysis for the primary 6MWT model showed a wide percentile bootstrap 95% CI of −76.05 to −13.97 m per 1-SD increase in CNIO, supporting the need for cautious interpretation. Conclusions: In this hypothesis-generating derivation study, a higher standardized CNIO index was associated with lower 3-month 6MWT distance among adults with chronic respiratory disease who completed outpatient pulmonary rehabilitation. The association with SPPB was weaker and should be interpreted cautiously. These findings are not generalizable to patients who discontinue rehabilitation or are hospitalized for exacerbation during follow-up, and prospective external validation in larger, diagnostically stratified cohorts is required before CNIO can be considered for clinical risk stratification or rehabilitation planning. Full article

This paper presents a primary side model predictive control (MPC) strategy for wireless power transfer (WPT) based charging of light electric vehicle (LEVs). A battery simulator develops a model to accurately reproduce constant-current (CC) charging profile from Open Ciruit Voltage (OCV) and State of Charge (SoC) parameters of the battery. This model forms the foundation of the predictive control design, allowing accurate prediction of the charging trajectory while avoiding reliance on secondary-side feedback signals. The WPT system employs a phase-shifted full-bridge (PSFB) inverter with S-S compensation, where the primary-side controller regulates the secondary-side charging current using only primary-side current measurements. In contrast to conventional secondary side control, which is tuned around nominal coupling, requires explicit feedback, and degrades under coil misalignment and parameter variations, the proposed MPC leverages integrated system and battery models to predict future states and optimally adjust the phase shift for robust charging operation. Simulation and experimental validation on a real-time LEV charging prototype under aligned, lateral, and angular misalignment conditions demonstrate significant reduction in current-settling time compared to fixed-gain proportional-integral (PI) and known adaptive feedback controllers for same system, with lower RMS current and reduced current spikes at the battery. On the embedded controller, the proposed MPC executes within approximately 1 µs per 85 kHz PWM cycle, corresponding to less than 10% CPU utilization, confirming its practical real-time feasibility. Full article

Recovered graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries is an important secondary resource that can reduce reliance on primary graphite and lower the environmental footprint of battery production. In this work, graphite obtained as a carbon-rich residue after industrial hydrometallurgical leaching of NMC111 black mass (2 M H₂SO₄ + 3% H₂O₂) is subjected to three post-leaching washing treatments to assess how far simple, low-intensity steps can further clean the leach residue while preserving the carbon structure. The washing routes are water washing (GW), water washing with ultrasonication (GU) and mild sulfuric-acid washing with 0.1 M H₂SO₄ (GA). ICP-OES and SEM–EDX show that, relative to the leached black mass, all washing treatments reduce residual transition-metal contents by two to three orders of magnitude, and that the mild acid wash provides the lowest bulk metal levels, with several elements at or below detection limits. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy indicate graphite-dominated patterns and improved structural order, with the ID/IG ratio decreasing from 0.62 (GW) to 0.11 (GA) and the corresponding in-plane crystallite size increasing from 30.6 nm to 168 nm. Overall, the mild acid washing step is the most effective low-impact post-leaching purification route, yielding a thoroughly cleaned low-metal graphite fraction that preserves the graphite framework and constitutes a suitable intermediate for further upgrading or reuse in secondary applications. Full article

Traumatic injury is one of the most common causes of disorders of consciousness (DoC) worldwide, but the management and prognosis of DoC remain enigmatic. The uncertainty surrounding the natural course of DoC, the tendency of consciousness to wax and wane, and a lack of effective treatments outside of avoiding additional insults renders trauma-associated DoC complex for both providers and patient surrogates to navigate. This review explores the acute clinical course of DoC after traumatic injury chronologically and aims to compile recommendations based on the current best practices for diagnosis, management, and prognostication when caring for these patients during their acute hospitalization. Updates from trauma and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) resources, such as the American College of Surgeons, as well as new recommendations in the field of DoC are summarized. Serial clinical assessment with a standardized neurobehavioral battery such as the CRSR-FAST remains the mainstay of clinical care and research for DoC. Accurate diagnosis, multifaceted management, and humility surrounding prognostic discussions are all critical to caring for patients with DoC after trauma. Most of the care for trauma patients with a DoC remains supportive and aimed at avoiding secondary insults while allowing time for the patient’s recovery. In the same way that clinical care focuses on a cycle of diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis with each providing insight for the next, ongoing and future DoC research will compound on itself and hopefully lead to more advances in the future. Full article

As lithium demand surges and primary resources face depletion, lithium-bearing wastewater from urban mines has become a crucial secondary resource. For highly alkaline (pH 9–12), low-lithium (Li⁺ 0.5–5 g/L), high-sodium (Na/Li mass ratio > 30) wastewater generated from the alkaline leaching-washing of spent lithium-ion batteries in urban mining, a single-component, synergist-free extraction process employing HBL121 in sulfonated kerosene was developed, and its extraction stoichiometry, reaction mechanism, and industrial feasibility were elucidated. Saponification significantly enhanced extraction under moderate alkalinity: the saponified system achieved over 99% extraction efficiency at pH 11.0, whereas the non-saponified system required pH > 13.5 for comparable performance, thereby lowering alkali consumption by 81%. Under optimal conditions (saponification degree 40%, 30% (v/v) HBL121 and 70% (v/v) sulfonated kerosene, organic-to-aqueous phase ratio O/A = 1:1, extraction time 5 min), single-stage extraction efficiency exceeded 99%. A McCabe-Thiele diagram was used to determine the theoretical stage number for lithium stripping, showing that essentially all lithium ions can be stripped via a three-stage countercurrent process. Using 3.0 mol/L H₂SO₄ at an aqueous-to-organic phase ratio of 1:4, the stripping efficiency exceeded 99% from the loaded organic. Slope analysis, FT-IR, and ESI-MS confirmed a coordination mechanism between HBL121 and metal ions, forming a stable anionic bisphosphonate complex [LiNa₂(C₂₈H₄₄O₇P₂)]⁻, whose neutral parent form is HLiNa₂(C₂₈H₄₄O₇P₂). Full article

Street lighting systems are essential for ensuring nighttime road safety and visibility. The integration of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems into street lighting infrastructure improves energy efficiency and sustainability; however, the mismatch between daytime energy generation and nighttime lighting demand requires effective energy management solutions. In addition, long-distance electrical connections introduce voltage drop constraints, which are often overlooked in conventional design approaches. This study addresses the integration of lighting design, electrical constraints, and techno-economic performance in nanogrid-based LED street lighting systems for secondary roads. A unified framework is developed to evaluate lighting performance, PV–battery sizing, voltage drop behavior, and lifecycle cost under different system architectures. Optimal pole spacing and luminaire ratings are determined using DIALux, while PV–battery configurations are optimized using HOMER Pro based on site-specific solar irradiance. The analysis focuses on voltage drop as the key electrical constraint and examines its impact under decentralized and centralized nanogrid configurations (25%, 50%, and 100%) in both stand-alone and grid-connected modes. The results show that increasing centralization reduces component redundancy but significantly increases cable length, conductor sizing, and infrastructure cost. A techno-economic assessment with lifecycle cost and sensitivity analysis indicates that a 25% centralized configuration reduces total system cost by approximately 23% compared to fully decentralized systems while avoiding excessive cabling costs. These findings demonstrate that voltage drop and electrical infrastructure constraints play a decisive role in determining optimal system design, highlighting the importance of system-level integration rather than isolated optimization of lighting or energy components. Full article

A real-time optimized model predictive control–equivalent consumption minimization strategy (MPC-ECMS) is proposed for the energy management of shipboard gas turbine–photovoltaic hybrid energy storage (GT-PV-HESS) power systems. Different from conventional MPC-ECMS methods that only adopt single-level SOC-based feedback regulation, the strategy aims to overcome the limitations of conventional methods, including the poor adaptability of rule-based strategies and the lack of foresight in traditional ECMS, which cannot achieve simultaneous improvements in fuel economy, generation efficiency, and battery lifespan while maintaining system stability under dynamic operating conditions. The proposed strategy integrates the forward-looking optimization ability of MPC and the real-time decision-making advantage of ECMS. MPC is used to predict short-term load and photovoltaic power and identify operating modes, and a two-level equivalent factor adjustment mechanism is designed based on predicted conditions and battery state of charge (SOC). The optimized factor is applied in ECMS to achieve optimal power allocation between the gas turbine and battery under system constraints, while the supercapacitor implements power secondary correction to suppress bus voltage fluctuations caused by gas turbine operation. The architectural novelty lies in the two-level coordination mechanism and the marine-oriented hybrid energy storage cooperation. Simulation studies are conducted on the MATLAB/Simulink R2021b platform, and the results validate that it yields superior performance to the rule-based control and traditional ECMS under typical ship operating conditions. It increases gas turbine efficiency to 15.62% (0.47% and 6.24% higher than the two conventional methods). Over the 120 s simulation period, the proposed strategy reduces total fuel consumption to 1.049 kg, which is lower than 1.054 kg for the rule-based strategy and 1.192 kg for conventional ECMS. The battery SOC fluctuation is restricted to only 3.89%. The maximum DC bus voltage fluctuation rate is controlled within 3.28%, which meets the stability requirements of shipboard DC microgrids. The proposed strategy achieves a comprehensive and superior balance among fuel economy, power generation efficiency, and battery life while ensuring stable system operation under all working conditions. This two-level MPC-ECMS framework provides a high-performance and practically feasible energy management solution for shipboard hybrid power systems. Full article