Search Results (161)

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) phospholipids could promote the development of infants’ brain, nervous system and digestive system. This research conducted a comparative analysis of phospholipid composition in MFGM of colostrum from different bovine species (Holstein cattle, yak, and Buffalo), with a particular focus on analyzing phospholipid variations in yak MFGM across different lactation stages. Chromatographic quantification revealed phosphatidylcholine (PC) as the predominant phospholipid class (34.7–47.44%) in all examined species. Notably, Holstein cow milk contains significantly higher levels of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Distinct phospholipid profiles emerged between species: yak milk demonstrated significantly higher concentrations of sphingomyelin (SM), lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE), dimethylphosphatidylethanolamine (dMePE), and bis-methylphosphatidic acid (BisMePA), whereas buffalo milk showed preferential accumulation of phosphatidylinositol (PI), phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC). Longitudinal analysis revealed dynamic changes in yak milk phospholipids during lactation: as the lactation period in-creases, PC, PS, LPC, LPE, methylphosphatidylcholine (MePC), BisMePA, and dMePE exhibited progressive decline, while PE, SM, PI and PG showed incremental increases. Analysis of phospholipid metabolism pathways indicates that yak colostrum supports early calf development by enriching phospholipids associated with immune and neuroprotection, while mature milk shifts toward maintaining membrane stability. These compositional characteristics position yak milk as a promising phospholipid-fortified alternative to human breast milk. Full article

Delivery by caesarean section (CS) is increasingly common worldwide and has been associated with altered health outcomes in offspring, which can be partially mitigated with breastfeeding. Interestingly, the mode of delivery itself may influence the composition of human milk. The aim of this narrative review was to comprehensively examine current evidence on the impact of CS on breast milk composition and to discuss its potential implications for neonatal and infant health. A literature search of the MEDLINE database was conducted in July 2025. It identified 1212 studies addressing associations between mode of delivery and human milk components, of which 54 were included in the qualitative synthesis. Available evidence suggests that CS is associated with transient, lactation stage-dependent alterations in breast milk composition, most pronounced in colostrum and transitional milk. Reported changes include differences in macronutrients, mineral content, immune-related molecules, hormones, antioxidants, microbiota, microRNA profiles, and other bioactive components. Findings related to mature milk are less consistent and often influenced by confounding factors. While some CS-associated alterations may slightly reduce the beneficial effect of breastfeeding, e.g., reducing certain antimicrobial or nutritional components, other changes seem to be potentially advantageous for the neonate/infant after CS, in particular in immune-related factors. Overall, the clinical significance of these compositional differences remains unclear, as no studies have directly linked CS-related changes in milk composition to long-term infant outcomes. Further well-designed longitudinal studies are needed to clarify these associations. Regardless of delivery mode, breastfeeding remains the optimal feeding strategy and a key intervention to support infant health after CS. Full article

Background/Objectives: Breast milk lysozyme is crucial for infant intestinal health. The low breastfeeding rate has driven the investigation of alternatives like hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) for infant formula supplementation. However, HEWL differs significantly from human lysozyme. This study aimed to systematically compare the functional efficacy of recombinant human lysozyme (rhLYZ) and HEWL to assess their suitability as formula supplements. Methods: The physicochemical properties (enzymatic activity, optimal pH, thermal stability) of rhLYZ and HEWL were analyzed. Biological functions were evaluated using HT-29 intestinal cells for proliferation, differentiation, and protection against lipopolysaccharide-induced damage. In vivo effects on growth, intestinal morphology, and gene expression were assessed in a mouse pup model via transcriptomic analysis. Gut microbiota composition was also examined. Results: rhLYZ exhibited twice the enzymatic activity of HEWL, with an optimal pH of 6.0. In cellular models, rhLYZ enhanced intestinal epithelial differentiation at low concentrations. In vivo, rhLYZ supplementation significantly improved pup body weight, intestinal maturity, and villus-to-crypt ratios, outperforming HEWL. Transcriptomics revealed rhLYZ upregulated broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptides (e.g., Defa, lactoferrin) and immune-related genes, whereas HEWL induced a narrower antibacterial response and downregulated key defensins. Furthermore, rhLYZ significantly increased gut microbiota diversity and enriched beneficial butyrate-producing bacteria. Conclusions: rhLYZ more effectively mimics human milk lysozyme by promoting intestinal development, broad-spectrum immunity, and a balanced microbiota. HEWL shows a narrower functional profile. These findings provide a scientific basis for optimizing lysozyme selection in infant formula, highlighting the superior potential of rhLYZ. Full article

Background/Objective: Human milk is an irreplaceable source of nutrition and is essential for the infant’s growth and development right after birth and for early life stage survival. This study aims to characterize and compare the metabolite profiles of colostrum and transitional and mature milk using an untargeted GC-MS approach. Additionally, it explores potential correlations between the identified metabolites and maternal nutritional factors. Methods: This was a longitudinal, prospective, and observational study. We included human milk samples from 113 Mexican women who practiced exclusive breastfeeding. Partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was performed to assess differences among lactation stages. Metabolites showing significant variation across lactation stages were further analyzed using Friedman tests with post hoc Wilcoxon tests and Bonferroni correction. Correlations with maternal anthropometric measures were evaluated. Results: Twenty-three metabolites were identified, including amino acids and derivatives, sugars, fatty acids, and energetic metabolites. Alanine and creatinine levels decreased during lactation, while aspartate, serine, and valine levels increased. Rhamnose level was higher in colostrum, whereas decanoic, dodecanoic, and tetradecanoic acid levels increased over time, and that of 11,14-eicosadienoic acid decreased. Lactic acid levels declined across stages. Negative correlations were found between several amino acids and maternal anthropometric variables, while glyceric acid, rhamnose and lactic acid correlated positively. Conclusions: Human milk metabolomic profiles display distinct, stage-specific variations shaped by maternal characteristics, reflecting the dynamic physiological and nutritional demands of the developing infant Full article

Background: Human milk (HM) is the optimal nutrition for preterm infants, but supplementation is often required to meet their unique nutritional needs. Donor human milk (DHM) and preterm formula are commonly used alternatives, yet their impacts on bone metabolism and clinical outcomes remain incompletely defined. Objective: To compare the effects of exclusive mother’s own milk (MOM), MOM supplemented with DHM, and MOM supplemented with preterm formula on bone metabolism markers, growth milestones, and clinical outcomes in very preterm and very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. Methods: We conducted a retrospective review of medical records for infants born at <32 weeks’ gestation or <1500 g birth weight between January 2018 and June 2023. Feeding groups included exclusive MOM (N = 135), MOM + DHM (N = 74), and MOM + Formula (N = 54). Biochemical markers were assessed at baseline and on days 7, 14, and 28. Multivariate regression analyses evaluated predictors of growth and clinical outcomes. Results: Infants in the MOM group had significantly lower gestational age and birth weight, with higher rates of respiratory morbidity. Time to full enteral feeding and duration of parenteral nutrition were longer in the MOM group, but feeding regimen was not an independent predictor of these outcomes. By day 14, the MOM group had higher alkaline phosphatase levels and lower phosphorus levels compared to mix feeding groups, but these differences resolved by day 28. Calcium levels varied between groups but remained within normal ranges. Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC) incidence did not differ significantly across feeding regimens and was primarily associated with longer parenteral nutrition duration. Conclusions: Supplementation of MOM with either DHM or preterm formula supported adequate growth and bone metabolism without increasing NEC risk. Feeding regimen did not independently influence time to full enteral feeding or length of hospitalization, which were driven primarily by infant maturity and clinical status. Both DHM and preterm formula are viable supplements to MOM, ensuring nutritional adequacy without adverse bone health effects. Prospective studies are needed to evaluate long-term outcomes of these feeding strategies. Full article

Background/Objectives: Human colostrum plays a crucial role in early microbial colonization, immune development, and gut health of newborns. Its microbiota is highly dynamic and influenced by numerous factors, yet the determinants remain poorly understood. This systematic review aims to investigate the composition of colostrum microbiota and the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence its diversity and abundance. Methods: PubMed and Scopus were systematically searched using a prespecified search phrase. Data on microbial composition, diversity, and influencing factors were extracted and analyzed. The systematic review is registered in PROSPERO (CRD42025644017). Results: A total of 44 eligible studies involving 1982 colostrum samples were identified. Colostrum microbiota consists predominantly of Firmicutes and Proteobacteria, with core genera including Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, and Bifidobacterium. Some studies reported higher diversity in colostrum compared to mature milk, while others noted elevated bacterial abundance in the former. Factors influencing colostrum microbiota include maternal BMI, delivery mode, gestational age, diet, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), maternal stress, maternal age, secretor status, perinatal antibiotic exposure, neonatal gender, geographic location, feeding type, milk collection method, and mastitis. Conclusions: Colostrum hosts a diverse and dynamic microbiota shaped by multiple maternal, neonatal, and environmental factors. Understanding these influences is crucial for optimizing infant health outcomes, emphasizing the need for further research on the functional roles of colostrum’s microbiota. Full article

Background/Objectives: Donkey milk (DM) has been considered a valuable alternative to human and bovine counterparts as well as to infant formulas. Milk extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been proposed to influence key biological processes. The purpose of this study is to provide a comprehensive characterization of the protein composition of extracellular vesicles (EVs) by extending quantitative proteomic comparisons to EVs derived from donkey colostrum (DC) and mature donkey milk (MDM). Methods: The EVs were isolated from DC and MDM samples, characterized, and subjected to proteomic analysis using the tandem mass tag-based quantitative approach. Results: In addition to typical milk proteins and EV markers, EVs from DC and MDM both contain components associated with the immune system, immune response, or promoting tissue repair, and assisting with communication between the infant and their environment. The EVs from DC were enriched in proteins associated with protein turnover, specific defense functions, and regenerative processes. Conclusions: Overall, the results can contribute to the broader characterization of the overall protein composition of DC and MDM and might help to predict the beneficial effects of the corresponding EVs on various mammalian cells. They may also provide valuable insights for the development of novel DM-based products for food, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological applications. Full article

Background and Objectives: Human breast milk contains essential nutrients for infant growth, as well as bioactive molecules such as exosomes and miRNAs, which play a key role in the maturation of the infant’s immune system. Breast milk from mothers of preterm and term infants shows significant differences in its nutrient contents and bioactive components. This preliminary study aimed to compare the expressions of 13 immunomodulatory microRNAs present in breast milk from the mothers of preterm and term infants. Materials and Methods: Breast milk samples were obtained from 5 breastfeeding mothers of term infants and 5 breastfeeding mothers of preterm infants. Every mother provided morning, noon, and evening milk samples. The total protein, fat, and lactose concentrations were measured. In addition, miRNAs were extracted from the exosomal fraction of each sample. The expression levels of the 13 miRNAs were compared and analyzed at the three time points each day. Results: The preterm infants’ milk had higher average fat and lactose levels. There were no differences in the total protein concentrations. The expressions of miRNAs in the preterm infants’ milk showed significantly higher variations in miR-17-5p, miR-24, miR-29b, miR-30a-5p, and miR-146a. The other miRNAs did not show variations. Interestingly, the highest miRNA expression was only observed in breast milk from the nighttime. The morning and midday samples showed distinct expression patterns. Conclusions: We identified the immunomodulatory microRNA components and their changes in expression levels at different times of the day, as well as those most strongly expressed in breast milk consumed by preterm infants. Full article

Introduction: Amniotic fluid (AF) plays a pivotal role in foetal gastrointestinal development by delivering bioactive factors that support intestinal maturation. However, the redox environment of AF and its potential contribution to foetal intestinal homeostasis remain insufficiently characterised. This study aimed to quantify key antioxidant markers—superoxide dismutase isoforms (SOD1, SOD3), glutathione (GSH), and the oxidative DNA damage marker 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG)—in AF across gestational ages and compare them with those in human milk (HM). Methods: AF samples (n = 60) were collected from pregnancies between 15 and 40 weeks of gestation, grouped into preterm (<37 weeks) and term (≥37 weeks). SOD1, SOD3, GSH, and 8-OHdG concentrations were quantified using ELISA. HM samples (n = 45) were similarly analysed. Results: SOD1 and SOD3 in AF concentrations decreased significantly with gestational age (GA) (p < 0.001), while 8-OHdG levels increased (p < 0.001). SOD3 showed a negative correlation with 8-OHdG (p = 0.004). HM contained significantly higher levels of both SOD isoforms compared to AF (AF vs. HM: 35.6 (1.9–172.3) vs. 267.9 (54.6–843.8), p < 0.001 for SOD1 and 1.2 ng/mL (0.1–26.5) vs. 5.5 ng/mL (0.1–300.0), p < 0.001 for SOD3), regardless of GA. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the dynamic nature of the redox environment in AF and its potential importance for foetal GIT development. The disruption of redox balance by preterm birth or inadequate AF intake during foetal life may have long-term consequences for intestinal development and function. These insights provide a foundation for future clinical studies aimed at enhancing neonatal feeding regimens, particularly for preterm infants and those with congenital gastrointestinal disorders. Full article

Introduction: Several factors can affect the composition of a mother’s milk, including the infant’s sex, gestational age, and single or twin delivery. We aimed to determine the association of the offspring’s sex with the macronutrient and energy content in preterm milk, during the first six weeks postpartum. Methods: This is a retrospective, monocentric, cohort study of lactating mothers who delivered before 37 weeks at a referral tertiary maternity. A mid-infrared human milk analyzer was used. Results: From 174 mothers, 360 milk samples were obtained. In the milk for singletons, the mature milk for females was significantly richer in total energy, fat, and protein than the milk for males; in advanced lactation, the milk for males was richer in protein than the milk for females. The transitional milk for male twins was significantly richer in fat and energy than the milk for male singletons; mature milk for male twins was richer in energy, carbohydrates, and protein than the milk for singletons. The mature milk for female twins during the fourth week postpartum was significantly richer in fat and total energy than the milk for singletons. Conclusions: This study provides information on how the number of delivered fetuses and the infant’s sex affects the composition of preterm milk. Full article

The mammary gland is a modified sweat gland responsible for milk production. It is affected by diseases that reduce animals’ quality of life, consequently leading to economic losses in livestock. With advancements in tissue bioengineering and regenerative medicine, studying the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the bovine mammary gland can improve our understanding of its physiology and the processes that affect it. This knowledge could also enable the development of sustainable therapeutic alternatives for both the dairy production chain and human oncology research. A common approach in regenerative medicine is decellularization, a process that removes all cells from tissue while preserving its architecture and ECM components for subsequent recellularization. The success of recellularization depends on obtaining immunologically compatible scaffolds and using appropriate cell culture sources and methods to ensure tissue functionality. However, tissue culture technology still faces challenges due to specific requirements and high costs. Here, we review the literature on biomaterials and tissue engineering, providing an overview of the ECM of the bovine mammary gland and advances in its bioengineering, with a focus on regenerative medicine for bovine species. The methodology employed consists of a structured search of scientific databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, and SciELO, using specific keywords related to tissue engineering and the bovine mammary gland. The selection criteria prioritized peer-reviewed articles published between 2002 and 2025 that demonstrated scientific relevance and contributed to the understanding of bovine mammary gland bioengineering. Although research on this topic has advanced, vascularization, tissue maturation, and scalability remain key barriers to widespread application and economic viability. Full article

Orotic acid (OA) is a natural component of milk and is found in many biological fluids such as human ovarian follicular fluid. However, its effect on ovarian cells is unknown. Some studies suggest that OA may alter lipid metabolism and energy production in cells. In the present study, we determine the effect of OA on mitochondrial function and lipid droplet content in the human granulosa cell line. The effect of OA on in vitro mouse oocyte maturation and mitochondrial activity was also investigated. We found that repeated exposure to OA (0.01–1000 µM) did not alter the viability of human epithelial (HOSEpiC) and granulosa (HGrC1) ovarian cells. HGrC1 cells treated with a high dose of OA (500 µM) showed a more aerobic and energetic phenotype than control cells, whereas this effect was not observed after treatment with lower doses (0.01 and 100 µM) of OA. In addition, OA at a high dose (500 µM) reduced lipid droplet (LD) content without altering glucose (GLUT1, GLUT4) and fatty acid transporter (SLC27A1) gene expression in HGrC1 cells. At the same time, OA at 100 µM did not disrupt mouse in vitro oocyte maturation, whereas OA at 500 µM inhibited this process by arresting oocytes at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage with a reduction in mitochondrial activity. Our results show that OA at high doses can disrupt female reproduction, but normal dietary orotate intake does not have a negative effect on ovarian function. Full article

The growing recognition of the role of milk-derived exosomes in metabolic and immunological processes has brought attention to the potential utility of donkey milk. However, the efficacy and bioactive components of donkey milk are underexplored. This study aimed to elucidate the proteomic profiles of exosomes isolated from donkey colostrum and mature milk using advanced four-dimensional (4D) label-free quantitative proteomics. A comprehensive analysis identified and quantified a total of 2293 exosomal proteins from donkey milk, including 276 differentially expressed exosomal proteins (DEEPs). The results revealed marked proteomic differences between colostrum and mature milk exosomes, particularly in proteins associated with immune responses and metabolic pathways. Exosomal proteins derived from colostrum were found to be enriched in immune-modulatory factors and glycan-related pathways, which may contribute to the enhancement in neonatal immune system development. In contrast, exosomal proteins from mature milk were predominantly associated with metabolic processes and cellular senescence. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) analysis further suggested that specific exosomal proteins highly expressed in colostrum could serve as nutraceutical components with potential health benefits for humans. In conclusion, this study underscores the distinct proteomic features and potential physiological roles of exosomes from donkey colostrum versus mature milk. Full article

Milk is the principal nutrient of newborn humans and a diagnostic feature of the order Mammalia. Its release is elicited as a reflex by infant sucking under the control of the hormone oxytocin. While it is recognized that breast milk optimally promotes infant longitudinal growth and development, this review explores facts and controversies regarding the extent to which the milks of several dairy animals and infant formula milk (IF) approximate special properties and bioactivities of breast milk. It also provides evidence that early exposure to undernutrition during the very rapid fetal and early infancy growth predominantly and permanently stunts longitudinal growth trajectory in both animals and humans and is often followed in later life by obesity and metabolic dysfunction, and sometimes also by precocious timing of sexual maturation. There is a knowledge gap as to whether there may be additional critical periods of nutritional vulnerability in human development, which is characterized by a relatively prolonged period of slow childhood growth bracketed by the rapid fetal–neonatal and pubertal growth spurts. It is also unclear whether any quantitative differences in caloric intake and supply during neonatal period may influence developmental fatness programming. A further knowledge gap exists regarding the role of infant microbiome composition and development in the possible epigenetic programming of longitudinal growth or fatness in later life. Extending the research of early developmental programming to the entire period of human growth from conception to the end of puberty, examining infant caloric intake and supply as possible factors modulating the epigenetic programming in favor of obesity, and examining the role of infant gut microbiome in developing infant’s capacity to process nutrients may provide a better understanding of the interaction between critical nutritional influences in the control of human longitudinal growth and later-life obesity. Full article

Background/Objectives: There is limited information on human milk (HM) microbiome composition and function in Latin America. Also, interactions between HM constituents and its microbiome have received partial attention. Objective: To characterize the HM microbiota composition considering lactation stages (colostrum, transition, and mature HM) and free glutamate concentrations in Ecuadorian mothers. Methods: We recruited 20 mothers that gave birth to normal full-term babies and donated colostrum, transition, and mature milk. Samples were assessed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing by Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT). Free glutamate concentrations were measured by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Results: For each lactation stage and in order of frequency, the majority of ASVs were assigned to Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, (Firmicutes); Escherichia, Acinetobacter, (Proteobacteria); Corynebacterium, Lactobacillus, Cutibacterium, (Actinobacteriota); Chryseobacterium, and Flavobacterium (Bacteroidota). Alfa diversity was similar in HM samples and tended to be higher in milk intended for male infants. We observed significant differences in qualitative β-diversity metrics between samples with low and high glutamate concentrations. Functional predictions of HM microbiota demonstrated the presence of polyamine biosynthesis II super pathway in samples with high glutamate concentrations. Conclusions: The core bacterial components of the HM microbiota in Ecuadorian women were similar to those reported from different parts of the world, with variations at the genus level. Free glutamate dynamics in HM need to be studied considering maternal production and bacterial metabolism to better understand HM composition for optimal infant nutrition. Full article