Search Results (7,178)

Aquatic environments that support tourism, including coasts, lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries, are experiencing accelerating eutrophication worldwide. This trend increases the frequency and intensity of algal blooms. These blooms undermine ecosystem services and weaken the socio-economic performance of destination areas. Despite these challenges, existing research remains fragmented. Aquatic sciences mainly examine nutrient enrichment and bloom dynamics. In contrast, tourism studies often treat blooms as episodic disturbances and rarely integrate exposure pathways, risk communication, or feedback to destination governance. This review synthesizes evidence across freshwater and marine systems to develop a coupled tourism–water ecosystem perspective. We link eutrophication drivers and bloom typologies to three dimensions. These are the degradation of tourism-supporting ecosystem services, compound health stressors, and communication filters. The first includes losses of water clarity and aesthetic value. The second involves multi-route exposure through contact, inhalation, and seafood ingestion. The third shapes perceived safety, trust, and behavioral adaptation. We further connect perceived health risks to observable tourist behaviors, including cancellation, destination substitution, and activity avoidance. These micro-level responses can aggregate into market-level demand contractions and consumption reallocation. They can also trigger regional economic cascades, including public management costs, employment impacts, and long-term reputational damage. Crucially, tourism is not merely a victim of blooms. It can also act as a reinforcing anthropogenic driver through wastewater burdens, infrastructure expansion, and pulse pressures. These pressures lower ecological resilience, especially under warming and hydrological stabilization. Finally, we identify governance leverage points. These include early-warning systems, threshold-based graded interventions, transparent risk communication, and integrated social–ecological modeling. These strategies can reduce uncertainty-driven losses and support adaptive destination management. Overall, this review reframes algal blooms as systemic social–ecological risks. It provides a structured basis for future empirical attribution and policy design in tourism-dependent waters under climate stress. Full article

Sustainable small hydropower (SHP) is central to the clean-energy transition of mountainous Central Asia, yet its long-term reliability depends on a rapidly changing cryosphere. Winter river-ice dynamics—an underappreciated control on run-of-river generation—remain poorly characterized owing to the collapse of in situ hydrometeorological networks since 1991. We use a 112-month Sentinel-1 C-band SAR time series (February 2017–May 2026) over a 5320 km² headwater catchment of the Chu River basin, northern Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan, to quantify river-ice phenology at 20 m resolution using a per-pixel summer-baseline anomaly approach. Mid-winter (December–February) ice cover declined significantly at −0.51%·yr⁻¹ (p = 0.013; Mann–Kendall p = 0.029), with the 2026 winter recording an unprecedented 2.6–2.8 σ departure from the 2017–2025 climatology. Contrasting the cold 2022 and warm 2026 winters revealed bidirectional climate sensitivity—early breakup versus persistent thin ice—posing distinct SHP hazards. ERA5-Land reanalysis (1992–2026) showed significant winter warming with no precipitation or snowfall trend, indicating thermally forced ice decline. Interpreted within a conceptual Peak Water scenario, this signals a closing window of opportunity for SHP generation, with direct relevance to sustainable water–energy management and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 7; SDG 13). Our results provide the first decadal, satellite-based evidence of river-ice loss for Central Asian mountain rivers and a transferable monitoring framework to support climate-resilient, sustainable hydropower planning in ungauged basins. Full article

Climate change is progressively altering the thermal environment of European agriculture, with direct consequences for high-value perennial crops such as olive (Olea europaea L.) and grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). Although the Growing Degree Days (GDD) index is widely applied to characterize crop thermal requirements, no systematic evidence exists on the actual GDD values accumulated at the locations where these crops are currently grown across Europe. This study introduces a “reverse agroclimatology” approach that anchors GDD calculations exclusively to olive grove and vineyard areas identified in the Corine Land Cover (CLC) dataset for five reference years (1990, 2000, 2006, 2012, and 2018), using ERA5-Land reanalysis daily temperature data as the climatological input. For each CLC reference year, GDD was computed for olive cultivation (T_base = 7 °C, January–May) and viticulture (T_base = 10 °C, April–October) exclusively over registered cultivation pixels, and per-country means were subjected to linear regression trend analysis (p < 0.05). For olive cultivation across 11 Mediterranean countries, statistically significant positive GDD trends were detected in 7 countries, with long-term (1985–2023) country means ranging from 476.2 GDD in France to 1214.3 in Cyprus, indicating that we can revise the known GDD thresholds. The first appearance of olive cultivation in Slovenia’s 2012 CLC dataset, with a median of 546.5 GDD, provides land use-mapped evidence of a spatial displacement of cultivation boundaries. For vineyard cultivation across 22 European countries, significant positive trends were identified in 18 countries, with warming rates reaching 19.25 GDD yr⁻¹ in Turkey, 15.83 GDD yr⁻¹ in Albania, and 14.89 GDD yr⁻¹ in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mediterranean and Balkan vineyards already exceed the classical 2000 GDD threshold of viticultural suitability across all reference years. In contrast, central and northern European registered vineyards operate below it, though their warmest sites are increasingly approaching or crossing it in the most recent periods. The cultivation-anchored GDD framework, built on openly available data and a fully reproducible R-based pipeline, provides a practical and updatable tool for monitoring the evolving thermal conditions of European olive and wine production under ongoing climate change. Full article

Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and Kawasaki disease (KD) are pediatric inflammatory conditions which share overlapping clinical features, yet their long-term cardiovascular trajectories remain incompletely characterized. Understanding differences in myocardial strain evolution and coronary artery Z-score progression is essential for optimizing surveillance strategies and risk stratification. Aims of this review were to comprehensively compare the long-term evolution of myocardial strain parameters and coronary artery Z-scores in children with MIS-C versus KD through mid- and long-term follow-up assessment studies, and to identify clinical implications for monitoring and management. A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed to identify studies evaluating myocardial strain and coronary artery Z-scores in MIS-C and KD. Publications from January 2020 to February 2026 were considered for MIS-C, with earlier key studies on KD included to contextualize established cardiac outcomes. Observational studies and cohort reports describing echocardiographic findings and follow-up data were reviewed. Available evidence indicates that MIS-C commonly presents with acute myocardial dysfunction, frequently characterized by reduced global longitudinal strain despite preserved or mildly reduced ejection fraction; in most cases, myocardial strain abnormalities substantially improve within weeks to a few months following treatment. In contrast, myocardial strain impairment in KD, which typically presents at less than 5 years of age, is less pronounced; coronary artery involvement shows an opposite trend, as KD is more frequently associated with coronary dilations and aneurysm formation, reflected by persistent elevations in coronary artery Z-scores, whereas coronary abnormalities in MIS-C are milder and often transient. Recovery patterns therefore differ, with MIS-C demonstrating rapid myocardial functional recovery, and KD carrying a greater risk of long-term coronary artery sequelae. MIS-C and KD exhibit distinct cardiovascular phenotypes: MIS-C is primarily characterized by reversible myocardial dysfunction, whereas KD remains a condition most strongly associated with a risk of persistent coronary artery abnormalities. Deciphering these differences may help guide disease-specific cardiac monitoring and long-term follow-up strategies in affected children. Full article

This study focuses on the quantitative simulation of the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of permafrost area, providing scientific value for Mongolian Plateau permafrost dynamics. Understanding the permafrost area of the Mongolian Plateau and accurately predicting future changes in permafrost area are crucial for sustainable environmental development. In this study, ERA5-Land surface temperature (LST) combined with the temperature at the top of permafrost (TTOP) model are used to calculate the annual permafrost area from 1980 to 2024. In addition, this study used the long short-term memory (LSTM) model to predict permafrost area on the Mongolian Plateau from 2025 to 2100. In this study, it is concluded that (1) the study area is not uniformly covered with permafrost, and its distribution is mainly limited to the northern part of the Mongolian Plateau, with a permafrost area of 53.20 × 10⁴ km²; (2) the permafrost area is estimated with an accuracy and precision of 0.94 when compared to the baseline value derived from borehole permafrost data; (3) under the CMIP6 three different shared socioeconomic pathway (SSP) 1-2.6, 2-4.5, and 5-8.5 future scenarios, the distribution of permafrost area shows a downward trend. This study provides a theoretical reference for distribution permafrost area in geographical space, which can help achieve the sustainable development of ice and snow resources. Full article

Background/Objectives: Bariatric surgery is an effective intervention for severe obesity; however, long-term outcomes may be influenced by postoperative dietary behaviors, nutritional status, and complications. In Saudi Arabia, longitudinal evidence on weight trajectories and postoperative diet quality remains limited. The present study aimed at evaluating three-year weight status trends; assessing sociodemographic factors, baseline BMI, and postoperative diet quality; and examining nutrition-related complications following bariatric surgery. Methods: This retrospective longitudinal study included 189 adults who underwent sleeve gastrectomy at two tertiary hospitals in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Anthropometric data were obtained from medical records at six time points: preoperative, two weeks, six months, one year, two years, and three years postoperatively. Diet quality and postoperative complications were assessed via structured telephone interviews. Weight outcomes were expressed as percentage of total body weight loss (%TBWL), excess body weight loss (%EWL), excess body mass index loss (%EBMIL), and weight regain. Statistical analyses included Friedman’s test, Mann–Whitney U test, and multiple linear regression. Results: Significant improvements in all weight loss indicators were observed over three years (p < 0.001). Diet quality score was the only significant variable associated with weight loss at three years, with higher scores associated with greater %EWL and %EBMIL. Baseline BMI and DQS were significantly associated with %EWL (Beta = −0.17, 95% CI: −1.72 to −0.13 and Beta = 0.21, 95% CI: 1.37 to 7.12, respectively) and %EBMIL (Beta = −0.15, 95% CI: −1.68 to −0.07 and Beta = 0.24, 95% CI: 1.90 to 7.66, respectively). Age was significantly associated with weight regain (Beta = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.02 to 1.08). Conclusions: Bariatric surgery resulted in sustained weight reduction over three years. Postoperative baseline BMI and diet quality were significantly associated with %EWL and %EBMIL, underscoring the importance of structured nutritional follow-up and counseling. Full article

Rice monoculture systems, often involving double- or triple-cropping cycles annually, require intensive agricultural practices that can lead to land degradation. This study evaluates land degradation within the long-term rice monoculture systems of Nakhon Sawan, Thailand, using the Sustainable Development Goal 15.3.1 framework. By focusing exclusively on persistent rice-growing areas, the study minimized the confounding signals of land-use conversion, allowing for an evaluation of the trajectories driven by combined agricultural management and climatic factors. The assessment integrated land use and land cover (LULC), soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, and land productivity. Findings indicate that 83% of the original paddy area remained long-term monoculture, with LULC-related degradation limited to 4% of the original paddy cultivation area. While SOC depletion was observed in a few districts, a broader potential carbon accretion trend was identified across the province, likely driven by sustainable post-harvest practices such as stubble retention and organic amendments. Land productivity analysis revealed partial stress only in a few districts. The study demonstrated that long-term rice cultivation did not result in widespread deterioration of soil health on an aggregate provincial scale; however, district-localized degradation hotspots suffering from soil organic carbon depletion and climate-induced productivity stress were identified, demanding targeted regional management. Full article

Background: Whether the fatal and non-fatal composition of aggregate pancreatitis burden has changed over time remains unclear. We assessed long-term changes in the fatal-to-non-fatal composition of aggregate pancreatitis burden using Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2023 estimates. Methods: We conducted a systematic descriptive and trend analysis using publicly available estimates from the GBD 2023 Results Tool for incidence, prevalence, deaths, years lived with disability (YLDs), years of life lost (YLLs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) across 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2023. Because GBD reports pancreatitis as an aggregate cause category, the analysis could not distinguish acute pancreatitis, recurrent acute pancreatitis, chronic pancreatitis, or acute exacerbations of chronic pancreatitis. Primary analyses used age-standardised rates per 100,000 population. Four burden–composition metrics were derived within each location–year stratum: the YLL:YLD ratio, YLD:DALY proportion, deaths-to-incidence ratio, and prevalence-to-incidence ratio. Temporal trends were modelled in R version 4.5, using segmented regression, with up to three joinpoints selected by a Bayesian information criterion. Results: Globally, all six age-standardised native GBD measures declined between 1990 and 2023. The age-standardised incidence rate decreased from 37.62 (95% UI 32.20–43.11) to 32.91 (28.84–37.17) per 100,000, prevalence from 93.78 (69.26–126.25) to 68.92 (52.53–90.32), deaths from 1.76 (1.49–2.16) to 1.40 (1.21–1.66), YLDs from 5.70 (2.75–9.45) to 4.34 (2.18–7.04), YLLs from 55.96 (46.50–69.72) to 43.60 (36.89–53.53), and DALYs from 61.66 (50.62–75.61) to 47.94 (40.57–58.16). However, the fatal-to-non-fatal composition changed little: the global YLL:YLD ratio was 9.82 in 1990 and 10.04 in 2023, while the YLD share of DALYs was 0.092 and 0.091, respectively. Joinpoint modelling showed fluctuation rather than a sustained shift toward disability-dominant burden: the global YLL:YLD ratio was stable until 1998, increased from 1998 to 2002 (annual percent change [APC] 1.38%, 95% CI 0.42 to 2.36), and then declined modestly thereafter (APC −0.13%, −0.20 to −0.06). Burden remained higher in males, whereas females had a greater non-fatal share of total burden (YLD:DALY in 2023: 0.134 vs. 0.073). All sociodemographic index strata remained mortality-dominant in both 1990 and 2023; low-SDI settings had the greatest fatal dominance (YLL:YLD 34.94 in 1990; 24.72 in 2023). Using a descriptive YLD:DALY ≥ 0.50 benchmark, 203 of 204 countries and territories remained below the disability-dominant threshold in both years, no country crossed from below to above this benchmark, and only Georgia moved from above to below the benchmark. Conclusions: Despite declines in global incidence, mortality, and DALY rates, the aggregate GBD pancreatitis burden remained overwhelmingly mortality-dominant from 1990 to 2023. Because GBD pancreatitis combines acute and chronic pancreatitis, this finding should be interpreted as describing the modelled aggregate pancreatitis cause category rather than proving subtype-specific mortality dominance. The intensity of fatal dominance varied by sex, SDI, region, age, and country, but a structural shift toward disability-dominant aggregate burden was not observed. Full article

To investigate the interaction between artificial intelligence development (AID) and water–energy–food system technical efficiency (WEF-TE), panel data from 264 cities in China from 2013 to 2023 were utilized, and WEF-TE in the study areas was estimated using Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA). Subsequently, the Error Correction Model (ECM) and a random forest model were adopted for empirically examining the adjustment and driving mechanisms of AID on WEF-TE from three dimensions, namely enterprise scale, application level, and workforce literacy. The results indicate the following: (1) China’s WEF-TE generally shows an increasing trend; however, clear differences remain between high-value and low-value regions, and the deviation in lagging areas can reach 0.507. Meanwhile, the Yellow River Basin, which is the core region of China’s WEF system, remains below the national average in the process of technical efficiency optimization. (2) AID has a long-term equilibrium relationship with WEF-TE across the research dimensions and can effectively adjust technological inefficiencies in the short term, with adjustment coefficients ranging from 0.004 to 0.021 under different test rules. (3) In terms of enterprise scale and application level, the driving effect of AID on WEF-TE is relatively strong, with feature weights of 0.16 and 0.155, which are close to those of human capital input (0.172) and industrial structure rationalization (0.15). This study provides important reference value for constructing an interdisciplinary research framework that integrates WEF Nexus with AID. Full article

Qinghai Lake, the largest endorheic saline lake in China, has undergone a pronounced hydrological regime shift from a multi-decadal decline to a rapid post-2004 recovery, reflecting strong hydroclimatic non-stationarity in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau (TP). This paper supplements the current water level and lake area status of Qinghai Lake to provide basic background for future prediction. Reliable forecasting of such climate sensitive lake systems remains difficult because conventional statistical models often fail to capture non-linear fluctuations, whereas standalone deep learning models may overlook long-term deterministic evolution. To address this challenge, we developed a serial decomposition GeoAI framework that integrates autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA), one-dimensional convolutional neural networks (1D-CNNs), and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks for non-stationary water level forecasting. Using annual water level observations from 1960 to 2025, the ARIMA component was first used to extract the low-frequency deterministic trend, after which the CNN-LSTM module reconstructed the nonlinear residual variability. The model was trained on the 1960–2012 period and validated over 2013–2025, which represents the most dynamic expansion stage of Qinghai Lake. The hybrid framework outperformed the benchmark models, achieving a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.2033 m, Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 0.1727 m, and Mean Squared Error (MSE) of 0.0413 m² during validation. The decomposition strategy effectively reduced phase lag and amplitude attenuation, improving both predictive accuracy and process interpretability. Multi-step forecasting for 2026–2056 suggests that Qinghai Lake will continue to rise, reaching approximately 3204.08 m by 2056, although the growth rate is projected to slow as negative hydrological feedback strengthen. By explicitly separating deterministic climate scale signals from nonlinear short-term variability, the proposed framework provides a robust and transferable geoinformation based tool for forecasting water level dynamics and supporting adaptive management in climate sensitive, data scarce lake basins. Full article

Background/Objectives: Reliable quality control (QC) materials are essential for maintaining the analytical performance of hepatitis C virus (HCV) screening assays. Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are widely used for point-of-care HCV screening; however, standardized plasma-based internal quality control (IQC) materials compatible with both rapid tests and automated immunoassays remain limited. This study aimed to develop and evaluate plasma-based QC materials applicable to multiple anti-HCV RDTs and automated immunoassays. Methods: QC materials were prepared from pooled HCV-positive plasma at strong-positive, weak-positive, and negative levels in liquid and lyophilized formats. Lyophilized preparations were produced with and without trehalose, while liquid samples were prepared with and without a stabilizer. Performance was evaluated using five anti-HCV RDT kits and the Elecsys Anti-HCV II automated immunoassay platform. Stability was assessed under accelerated temperature conditions (45 °C for 28 days) and long-term storage (2–8 °C and 20–30 °C for six months). Signal trends were analyzed using linear regression (p > 0.05), and homogeneity was evaluated using one-way analysis of variance and Cochran’s C test. Results: All QC formulations demonstrated consistent qualitative reactivity across the evaluated RDT kits and stable responses on the automated immunoassay platform. Lyophilized plasma containing trehalose maintained stable cut-off index (COI) values during accelerated and long-term storage, with no significant time-dependent trends (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Trehalose-stabilized lyophilized materials demonstrated enhanced stability and acceptable homogeneity, supporting practical applicability under the tested storage conditions across the evaluated rapid tests, and within the evaluated moderate-to-high positive analytical ranges on the automated anti-HCV immunoassay platform. Full article

Early-age strength development and carbon emissions represent specific operational constraints in underground cemented tailings backfill (CTB) operations. A pH and ionic pre-conditioning-assisted CO₂ mineralization process was evaluated for carbonate-rich cemented tailings backfill designed to improve early UCS while retaining measurable CO₂ uptake through systematic process control and optimization. Skarn-type tailings (CaO 16.74 wt%, total carbonates 34.7 wt%) were subjected to screening under nominal pH and ionic pre-conditioning treatments (4.0–11.5), CO₂ pressure (0–0.5 MPa), cement-to-tailings ratio (1:3–1:12), and slurry concentration (66–78%). Strength evolution (1–28 d), mineralization products were characterized using TGA as the primary CO₂-uptake method, with XRD used for semi-quantitative phase-trend assessment, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with selected-area electron diffraction (SAED), X-ray computed tomography (CT), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Under optimal conditions (pH 8.5, 0.3 MPa CO₂ pressure, 48 h mineralization, 72–74% solids), mineralized specimens achieved 2-day uniaxial compressive strength equivalent to 1.47-times the 3-day control strength (p < 0.01), with peak net CO₂ sequestration of 37.1 g/kg. EBSD analysis of 347 grain boundaries and TEM-SAED examination of multiple foil sections supported the occurrence of syntaxial calcite overgrowth on primary carbonate debris as a major interfacial transition zone strengthening mechanism. Interconnected pore cluster volume decreased by 70.6%; Zn²⁺ and Pb²⁺ leaching decreased by 67.2% and 71.8%, respectively. A shrinking-core kinetics-Ryshkewitch model with pH-dependent correction functions predicted 3-day strength with acceptable accuracy for TW-A and TW-B, whereas TW-C showed a −27.3% deviation, identifying acidic and sulfate-rich wastewater as a boundary condition outside the reliable model domain. Field coring at −500 m depth provided pilot-scale evidence that a 23 mm mineralized shell was consistent with localized reduction of shallow exposed-face instability risk during the early free-standing period. Overall, the pH and ionic pre-conditioning-assisted CO₂ mineralization process is proposed as a laboratory-supported and field-informed screening framework for simultaneous early-strength enhancement and partial carbon sequestration in carbonate-rich cemented tailings systems. The resulting models and parameter guidance should be interpreted as preliminary design tools requiring further factorial optimization and long-term field validation before full site-specific deployment. Full article

Wind-blown sand threatens railway safety in arid regions. Existing measures mainly protect the windward side and cannot fully prevent particles from crossing the embankment. These particles can be re-entrained by leeward flows and redeposited on the track. This study combines wind tunnel experiments, large eddy simulation, and field observations to examine leeward-side protection for a high railway embankment. Three configurations are tested: no protection, baffles on the leeward slope, and a checkerboard barrier at the slope toe. The results show clear differences in flow structure and sand transport. Without protection, flow reattaches within 2–3 H (H is the height of the embankment) and near-surface velocity reaches 10–11 m/s. With baffles, reattachment shifts to 3–4 H and velocity decreases to 7–9 m/s. With a checkerboard barrier, reattachment is delayed to 4–5 H and velocity reduces to 4–6 m/s, forming a stable low-velocity zone. Surface shear stress decreases from 0.4–0.5 Pa to 0–0.2 Pa, and particle concentration near the shoulder drops by about one order of magnitude. Particle transport is weakened and deposition concentrates at the slope toe. Subgrade sand accumulation decreases from 350–480 g/min to 170–250 g/min. Field results confirm these trends. The checkerboard barrier effectively limits sand movement and improves deposition stability. The proposed leeward-side protection measures can effectively reduce sand accumulation on railway infrastructure, thereby improving the long-term operational safety, resilience, and sustainability of railways in desert environments under increasing wind–sand hazards. Full article

A 700 m pilot-scale cast iron pipeline reactor was operated for 120 days to investigate corrosion-stage evolution under reclaimed-water conveyance conditions. Sampling points were arranged at 50, 250, 450, and 650 m, and water-quality monitoring, coupon weight-loss tests, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and high-throughput 16S rRNA sequencing were combined to characterize corrosion-rate variation, corrosion-product morphology, and microbial community succession. During transport, NH₄⁺ generally decreased while NO₃⁻ increased, indicating nitrification-related nitrogen transformation under aerobic conditions; meanwhile, PO₄³⁻ declined and DOC fluctuated, reflecting coupled physicochemical and biological processes. SEM observations showed a transition from loose porous deposits to relatively compact layered corrosion products, followed by local deterioration and renewed porous structures in the later period. The corrosion rate followed an increase–decrease–re-increase pattern rather than a monotonic trend. Therefore, corrosion acceleration (CA = dc/dt) was introduced as an auxiliary diagnostic indicator to identify whether corrosion activity was increasing, decreasing, or temporarily stabilizing. Microbial community analysis showed stage-associated variation in biofilm and nitrogen-transformation-related taxa, supporting the interpretation that corrosion evolution was jointly affected by water-quality change, corrosion-product development, and microbial succession. Overall, the combined interpretation of corrosion rate, CA, water quality, SEM morphology, and microbial succession provides a more informative basis for diagnosing corrosion-stage transitions in reclaimed-water cast iron pipelines. From a sustainability perspective, this diagnostic framework can support long-term operation, maintenance planning, and risk monitoring of urban reclaimed-water distribution infrastructure, thereby improving pipeline durability, reducing leakage and maintenance risks, and enhancing the reliability of reclaimed-water reuse systems. Full article

Small and medium-sized (SMS) lakes in cold–arid regions are highly sensitive to climate change and play critical roles in regional hydrological and ecological processes. However, their long-term dynamic evolution along aridity–humidity gradients remains insufficiently understood. This study aims to reveal the spatiotemporal variations in SMS lakes on the Inner Mongolia Plateau and clarify their climatic driving mechanisms. Based on Landsat imagery and meteorological data (1984–2021) on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform, this study quantified the spatiotemporal variations in SMS lakes and adopted an ecological–geographical zoning framework to characterize lake responses across aridity–humidity gradients. Results indicate that, from 1984 to 2021, the total area of SMS lakes showed an insignificant linear trend but a net increase of 117% (396.50–860.33 km²), while the lake number increased by 155%, with 59 new lakes. The dynamics followed four stages: expansion (1984–1993), fluctuation (1994–2002), low-level stability (2003–2011), and recovery (2012–2021). Notably, recovery levels remained below the pre-2003 peak, with 2003 identified as a critical turning point. Lake numbers responded to climatic stress earlier than area changes. Spatially, lake variations in arid regions were primarily controlled by energy-related factors (e.g., temperature and potential evapotranspiration), while lake changes in semi-humid regions were dominated by precipitation-regulated water availability. Semi-arid regions presented transitional characteristics constrained by both energy and water factors. Although extreme weather events did not dominate long-term lake evolution, they significantly exacerbated short-term lake fluctuations. Overall, the controlling mechanism of SMS lakes shifted from energy limitation to water regulation under ongoing climate warming, highlighting pronounced regional differences in climate–lake interactions. Full article