Search Results (179)

Ammonia is increasingly regarded as a carbon-free energy carrier for hard-to-electrify power sectors, including marine propulsion, heavy-duty transport, and distributed generation. Its direct use in internal combustion engines, however, is constrained by high ignition energy, low laminar flame speed, narrow flammability limits, slow low-temperature chemistry, and strong trade-offs among efficiency, nitrogen-containing emissions, and unburned ammonia slip. Hydrogen enrichment is one of the most effective routes for improving ammonia combustion reactivity, but it also introduces a multivariable control problem: hydrogen fraction, ammonia injection timing, injection mode, air-path dilution, ignition strategy, and aftertreatment operation are tightly coupled and strongly condition-dependent. This review synthesizes recent progress in ammonia–hydrogen and ammonia-based dual-fuel engine control from a control-oriented perspective. The discussion first summarizes application scenarios, nonlinear combustion-mode transitions, emission-formation pathways, and control-relevant metrics. It then compares actuator-level strategies, including ammonia injection timing and staging, port and direct injection, hydrogen energy-fraction scheduling, excess-air-ratio and EGR control, high-energy ignition, and turbulent jet ignition. Advanced optimization methods are further reviewed, with emphasis on model predictive control, control-oriented combustion and emission models, artificial-intelligence-based virtual sensors, and reinforcement-learning control. The analysis shows that the central challenge is no longer whether ammonia can burn in an engine, but how a controller can keep the system inside a narrow moving window bounded by misfire, knock, NO_x, N₂O, and NH₃ slip. Finally, future research priorities are proposed, including engine–aftertreatment co-optimization, physics-informed virtual sensing, digital-twin-assisted calibration, lightweight deployment on electronic control units, and robust control under fuel and aging uncertainty. Full article

This study examines the evolving patterns and zoning characteristics of gas migration and storage zones during coal seam mining, taking the 215 fully mechanized longwall face at Huangling No. 2 Coal Mine as the engineering background. By integrating theoretical analysis, physical similarity simulation experiments, and field measurements, the research systematically explores the zonal linkage evolution mechanism of mining-induced depressurization gas migration and storage zones, together with the associated depressurization gas extraction technology. A flow regime determination equation, driven by the fracture expansion coefficient and permeability, is established on the basis of the fluid Reynolds number criterion. According to differences in gas flow states and medium morphology, the mining-induced fracture field is divided into five distinct zones: a high-permeability zone dominated by turbulent transport, a medium-to-high permeability zone with transitional flow as the secondary dominant region, a low-permeability zone featuring linear laminar flow with micro-permeability, an extremely low-permeability zone characterized by linear laminar flow in a locked state, and a zone of abrupt permeability change associated with gas enrichment. The dynamic evolution of depressurization gas migration and storage zones and their regional linkage mechanisms are clarified. On the basis of these findings, a dynamic targeted layout strategy for high-level boreholes is proposed that is consistent with the spatiotemporal evolution of the overburden permeability field. Field engineering practice shows that the optimized high-level borehole layout maintains the overall gas extraction rate at the drilling site stably above 70%, with a peak value of 93.7%, thereby ensuring safe and efficient mining of the working face. Full article

Rapid surrogate models are attractive for iterative computational fluid dynamics (CFD) design loops, though defining their operating envelope remains crucial. This study proposes RenaNet, a Reynolds-aware convolutional gated recurrent unit (ConvGRU) surrogate, for predicting two-dimensional laminar and transitional flows past cylinder and square obstacles. Using two initial flow snapshots and a Reynolds-number map, the model predicts spatiotemporal flow states up to 2000 time steps into the future, with Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) simulations serving as ground truth. Trained on Reynolds numbers of $1\le \mathrm{Re}\le 500$ (cylinder) and $1\le \mathrm{Re}\le 250$ (square), RenaNet achieves a minimum validation mean squared error (MSE) of $1.47\times {10}^{-5}$. A Reynolds-number ablation shows that removing the conditioning channel increases the validation MSE to $1.17\times {10}^{-3}$, while a ConvLSTM baseline gives $9.94\times {10}^{-4}$ with 24% more parameters. RenaNet also uses a direct long-horizon prediction interface for distant target frames. Auxiliary physics diagnostics confirm that predictions trained via MSE maintain acceptable continuity residuals across fitting, interpolation, and extrapolation cases. The average inference time for a 1000-step prediction horizon is approximately 1.25 s, delivering a 500-fold speedup over the reference LBM solver. Interpolation errors range from ${10}^{-4}$ to ${10}^{-2}$ depending on Reynolds number and geometry, while extrapolation beyond the training regime increases errors to the order of ${10}^{-2}$. These results establish RenaNet as a robust, parameter-efficient surrogate for laminar and transitional flows, with a clearly characterized operational boundary that informs future extensions into turbulent regimes. Full article

The flow behavior of montmorillonite (MMT) slurries with a volume fraction of $6.6\times {10}^{-4}$ to $1.6\times {10}^{-3}$, coagulated in 1.0 M NaCl, was investigated across laminar, transitional and turbulent regions using a closed-loop circular pipeline system equipped with dual pressure transducers and a flow meter. In the laminar region, the linearized approximation of the Bingham model was applied to extract yield stress and plastic viscosity, which were subsequently used to estimate friction losses as a function of the Reynolds number. The predicted friction loss calculated using the Hedström number and the Bingham model showed excellent agreement with experimental data. Furthermore, the critical Reynolds number indicating the transition from laminar to turbulent flow was confirmed to increase with increasing yield stress. This trend is qualitatively consistent with flow stability predictions. Notably, the plastic viscosity obtained by this method was significantly lower than values estimated from sediment volume fractions using conventional viscosity correlations based on an effective volume fraction of flocs. These insights into the flow resistance of coagulated clay suspensions are useful for improving the design and operation of water purification, slurry transport, and solid–liquid separation processes. Full article

Transonic compressors encounter significant challenges from shock formations due to high-speed supersonic blade tips, particularly at high altitudes where lower Reynolds numbers result in laminar boundary layer separation and increased mixing losses. Understanding shock wave–boundary layer interaction (SBLI) is essential for improving compressor performance. This study examines SBLI under varying Reynolds numbers, simulating higher altitude conditions in a transonic blow-down wind tunnel. Using an inlet valve setup to control inflow total pressure and Reynolds numbers, this study also reveals an increase in turbulence. The findings indicate that laminar-to-turbulent transition occurs upstream of the shock wave, resulting in interaction with a turbulent boundary layer, even at lower Reynolds numbers. Full article

To support the increasing complexity of innovation, design, and performance evaluation in the maritime industry, a ship-specific computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software suite tailored to incompressible viscous flow is required. This study utilizes the MarineFlow marine fluid dynamics code to explore numerical simulation schemes for cylindrical flow problems across a broad range of Reynolds numbers (1–10⁷) that are applicable to self-developed codes. Additionally, an analysis of the flow around a cylinder is conducted from the perspective of code developers. Various grid types and turbulence model schemes are employed to analyze and compare the drag coefficient, separation points, and pressure distribution characteristics of the cylinder. The results obtained from these simulations are then contrasted with those derived from commercial CFD software to assess their accuracy. Despite the presence of certain numerical artifacts, within the Reynolds number range of 1–10⁵, the unstructured grids combined with the laminar flow models effectively capture experimental data. Further exploration of the transitional Reynolds number range ($Re$ = $2\times {10}^5$–$6\times {10}^5$) shows a consistent decreasing trend in the mean drag coefficient, although significant deviations from theoretical predictions are evident. From the perspective of code developers, this study aims to reveal the limitations of current computational schemes and code architecture in accurately capturing flow dynamics within the transitional Reynolds number range. This provides a crucial basis for future optimization of turbulence models and algorithmic improvements, which are essential for the continued development of self-developed CFD codes and their engineering applications. Full article

Laminar separation bubbles (LSBs) on low-Reynolds-number airfoils are sustained by intrinsic unsteadiness driven by Kelvin–Helmholtz (K-H) growth in the separated shear layer. Using incompressible 2D URANS with the SA-$\gamma$ transition model for a NACA 0012 airfoil at $Re=5.3\times {10}^4$, we reveal that numerical dissipation behaves as a critical bifurcation parameter. Validated against the recent Jardin (2025) experimental benchmark, the physical state correctly resolves the LSB-induced pressure plateau ($C_p$) and local negative skin friction ($C_f<0$). However, when numerical dissipation exceeds the K-H instability growth rate, the physical limit-cycle oscillation collapses into a spurious fixed-point attractor—a phenomenon defined as numerical quenching. This pseudo-convergence triggers a catastrophic ∼30% deficit in mean lift ($C_l$). Furthermore, at $\alpha =6^{\circ }$, a drag-mechanism inversion is identified: while the physical branch is dominated by LSB-induced pressure (form) drag, the quenched branch exhibits a non-physical drag surge that exceeds the fully turbulent baseline. Phase portraits and power spectral densities ($St\approx 0.2$) provide objective diagnostics, demonstrating that standard residual convergence is a deceptive indicator of physical fidelity in transitional separated aerodynamics. Full article

Drag reduction forms a key area of focus in aerodynamics with a significant emphasis on delaying the laminar-to-turbulent transition of boundary layers over the wings of aircraft. There is enough evidence to suggest that achieving such transition delays is particularly challenging for backward-swept wings with large leading-edge sweep angles, which give rise to crossflow and attachment-line instabilities, in addition to Tollmien–Schlichting waves. The sustenance of extended laminar flow regions at high sweep angles has been demonstrated in recent studies, by designing airfoils with specially curated leading-edge profiles, which generate pressure distributions that can suppress crossflow. Such airfoils are called Crossflow Attenuating Natural Laminar Flow (CATNLF) airfoils. However, the design of such airfoils is presently restricted to inverse methodologies due to the inability of the conventional geometry parameterization techniques in representing the specialized leading-edge profiles of CATNLF airfoils. The aim of this study is to illustrate that a parametric representation of CATNLF airfoils can be realized using Bezier curves, thereby enabling their forward multi-point design using gradient-free Bayesian optimization. The developed design framework in terms of geometry parameterization and optimization formulation is able to deliver airfoils that can sustain natural laminar flow up to around 50% chord length on the upper surface, with a leading-edge sweep angle greater than 27 degrees at a Mach number of 0.78 and a Reynolds number of 20 million within a range of lift coefficients $C_l=0.5\pm 0.1$, making them a suitable design choice for a medium-range transport aircraft. Full article

This paper presents an experimental investigation of unsteady phenomena in shock wave/boundary-layer interaction on natural laminar flow airfoils at transonic speeds. Two airfoils of different relative thickness were studied over a Mach number range of M = 0.62–0.72 using high-speed schlieren visualization, unsteady pressure transducers, and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). Two distinct self-sustained periodical oscillation modes were identified. The first mode is a low-frequency oscillation analogous to classical turbulent buffet. The second modes are higher-frequency phenomena linked to oscillations of the laminar separation bubble. A key finding is a novel periodical oscillation regime, which accompanies the first/second mode, and represents laminar-turbulent transition point detaches from the normal shock wave, generating a new shock wave. The results show that the domiN/At mode and its characteristics depend strongly on the airfoil geometry, Mach number, and angle of attack, indicating a more complex transonic buffet behaviour in the presence of extensive laminar flow. Full article

The flow around circular cylinders is a classic problem in fluid mechanics with significant implications for offshore engineering. While extensive numerical and experimental research has focused on the subcritical and critical Reynolds regimes, the supercritical and postcritical regimes remain challenging and relatively unexplored, primarily due to the complex nature of turbulence and the high computational requirements. In this study, we perform three-dimensional detached eddy simulations using the finite volume method in OpenFOAM v1906, employing Menter’s k-$\omega$ SST turbulence model, to systematically investigate the flow past an infinitely long smooth cylinder from the subcritical through the postcritical regimes. The numerical setup ensures accurate near-wall resolution and reliable representation of unsteady flow features. We present a detailed analysis of vortex shedding patterns, wake evolution, and statistical properties of lift and drag coefficients for selected Reynolds numbers representative of each regime. The simulation results are benchmarked against experimental data from the literature, demonstrating good agreement for Strouhal number and mean drag. Special emphasis is placed on the evolution of wake topology and force coefficients as the flow transitions from laminar to fully turbulent conditions. The findings contribute to the limited numerical literature on flow around circular cylinders across subcritical, critical, supercritical, and postcritical Reynolds number regimes, providing insights that are fundamentally relevant to the broader scope of understanding vortex shedding phenomena. Full article

Molten salts are widely used in high-temperature energy systems because of their thermal properties. In such applications, natural circulation provides a passive means of heat transport in systems that require passive safety features. Many studies have examined the thermal–hydraulic behavior of molten salts in natural circulation configurations. This work develops a two-dimensional CFD model of a molten salt natural circulation loop and evaluates two formulations—a laminar model and the Transition SST (γ–Reθ) model. The models were verified through mesh-independence studies and validated against experimental benchmark data. Both models reproduced the measured temperature rise across the loop, but significant differences appeared in velocity and Reynolds-number prediction. The laminar model underpredicted circulation by about 30%, whereas the Transition SST model shows 4.2% for velocity and 11.8% for Reynolds number. Local comparison showed that the Transition SST model captured developing wall-peaked structures in the vertical legs, whereas the laminar model misinterprets these regions as stagnant core flow. These findings apply only to the 2D model, and the use of the CFD models follows a benchmark experiment rather than universal validation for all molten salt loops. Overall, the results show that transitional turbulence modeling is needed to capture the mixed-regime behavior in molten salt natural circulation. Full article

Forward-swept wings are more suitable for natural laminar flow than backward-swept wings. However, in order to reduce the difficulty of optimization, most aero-structural optimization studies of forward-swept wings do not consider the automatic laminar–turbulent transition, discrete variables, or large-scale constraints, which may result in undesirable optimization results. In this article, an efficient aero-structural optimization method for the composite forward-swept natural laminar flow (FSNLF) wing is proposed, which can solve MDO problems with those issues. Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations coupled with the dual e^N transition method are used to simulate subsonic viscous flows. A surrogate-based optimization (SBO) algorithm combining a discrete variable handling method is developed to solve the multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) problem involving many discrete ply thickness variables of predefined angles (0°/±45°/90°). The Kreisselmeier–Steinhauser (KS) method is employed to handle large-scale geometric constraints, ply fraction constraints and material failure constraints. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed method, we perform the aero-structural optimization of an A320-class composite FSNLF wing. Results show that the proposed method offers great potential in the aero-structural optimization of the composite FSNLF wing. It can handle 32 discrete variables and 11,089 constraints, the drag coefficient and mass of the wing are reduced significantly, and the area of the laminar flow region on the wing upper surface is increased by 24.3% compared with the baseline. Full article

This paper proposes a novel convention-based subgrid scale (SGS) model for large eddy simulation (LES) by using the Liutex concept. Conventional SGS models typically rely on the eddy viscosity assumption, which uses the linear eddy viscosity terms to approximate the nonlinear effects of unresolved turbulent eddies, that should be measured by unresolved Liutex. However, the eddy viscosity assumption is empirical but lacks a scientific foundation, which limits its predictive accuracy. The proposed model in this paper directly models the convective terms and demonstrates several key advantages: (1) the new model gets rid of isotropic assumption for the unresolved SGS eddies which are, in general, anisotropic, (2) the new model contains no empirical coefficients which need to be adjusted case by case, (3) the new model explicitly captures nonlinear convective effects by the SGS eddies and (4) the new model is consistent with the physics for boundary layer as the model becomes zero in the laminar sublayer, where Liutex becomes zero automatically. This new model has been applied in the flat plate boundary transition flow, and the results show that it outperforms the popular and widely adopted wall-adapting local eddy (WALE) model. This new model is a conceptual breakthrough in SGS modeling and has the potential to open a new direction for more accurate SGS models and future LES applications. Full article

Laminar–turbulent transition is a phenomenon that extensively exists in many fluid flows. Accurate and cost-effective modelling of the transition is of fundamental importance for the design and diagnosis of relevant flow processes and industry systems. Existing transition turbulence models were mostly developed for high-speed aerodynamics applications. Their suitability for buoyant low-speed flows, such as natural and mixed convection flows, has been rarely assessed. This study aimed to bridge this gap through comparing the velocity and temperature fields yielded from various transition turbulence models against the experimental data of natural convection flow in a differentially heated cavity. The results showed that Wilcox’s low-Re modification to the SST k-ω model and the transport γ-equation had good accuracies for low-speed natural convection flows. Other models, including the algebraic γ-equation, γ-Re_θ model and k_t-k_l-ω model, overpredicted the turbulence quantities, resulting in significant predictive errors in velocity and temperature simulations. Full article

The topic of the present study is the aerodynamic performance of a Natural Laminar Flow (NLF) wing for UAVs at low speed. The basis is a thoroughly tested NLF airfoil in the wind tunnel of NASA which is well-customized for light aircrafts. The aim of this work is the numerical verification that a typical wing design (tapered with moderate aspect ratio and wash-out), being constructed out of aerodynamically highly efficient NLF airfoils during cruise, can deliver high aerodynamic loading under minimal freestream turbulence as well as realistic atmospheric conditions of intermediate turbulence. Thus, high mission flexibility is achieved, e.g., short take off/landing capabilities on the deck of ship where moderate air turbulence is prevalent. Special attention is paid to the effect of the Wing Tip Vortex (WTV) under minimal inflow turbulence regimes. The flight conditions are take off or landing at moderate Reynolds number, i.e., one to two millions. The numerical simulation is based on an open source CFD code and parallel processing on a High Performance Computing (HPC) platform. The aim is the identification of both mean flow and turbulent structures around the wing and subsequently the formation of the wing tip vortex. Due to the purely three-dimensional character of the flow, the turbulence is resolved with advanced modeling, i.e., the Improved Delayed Detached Eddy Simulation (IDDES) which is well-customized to switch modes between Delayed Detached Eddy Simulation (DDES) and Wall-Modeled Large Eddy Simulation (WMLES), thus increasing the accuracy in the shear layer regions, the tip vortex and the wake, while at the same time keeping the computational cost at reasonable levels. IDDES also has the capability to resolve the transition of the boundary layer from laminar to turbulent, at least with engineering accuracy; thus, it serves as a high-fidelity turbulence model in this work. The study comprises an initial benchmarking of the code against wind tunnel measurements of the airfoil and verifies the adequacy of mesh density that is used for the simulation around the wing. Subsequently, the wing is positioned at near-stall conditions so that the aerodynamic loading, the kinematics of the flow and the turbulence regime in the wing vicinity, the wake and far downstream can be estimated. In terms of the kinematics of the WTV, a thorough examination is attempted which comprises its inception, i.e., the detachment of the boundary layer on the cut-off wing tip, the roll-up of the shear layer to form the wake and the motion of the wake downstream. Moreover, the effect of inflow turbulence of moderate intensity is investigated that verifies the bibliography with regard to the performance degradation of static airfoils in a turbulent atmospheric regime. Full article