Search Results (17)

Background: Upper extremity deficits in unilateral cerebral palsy (UCP) severely restrict daily autonomy. Although movement-based priming is known to stimulate neuroplasticity, the distal transfer of lower extremity (LE) training to augment paretic upper limb (UL) function remains largely uninvestigated. This randomized controlled trial evaluated whether a 6-week LE cross-training (CT) priming regimen enhances UL functional restoration in pediatric UCP. Methods: Thirty-six children (6–8 years) were randomized to a conventional physical therapy cohort (n = 18) or an experimental CT cohort (n = 18). The CT group performed high-resistance contractions utilizing the non-paretic LE immediately preceding standard therapy. Blinded evaluations quantified Handgrip Strength (HGS) via dynamometry, grasping proficiency via the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2), and gross dexterity via the Box and Block Test (BBT) pre and post intervention. Results: Analysis indicated a robust, near-significant between-group effect (Wilks’ Λ = 0.775, p = 0.057). While both cohorts achieved substantial internal improvements, the CT participants displayed superior developmental trajectories across all domains, notably in grasping age equivalence (34.28 ± 6.33 vs. 25.78 ± 3.26 months) and HGS (3.89 ± 0.79 vs. 3.03 ± 0.53 kg). Conclusions: LE cross-training priming may be a feasible adjunct, but it did not demonstrate statistically significant additional UL benefit versus standard rehabilitation in this sample. Therefore, these results should be interpreted as exploratory and hypothesis-generating. This potential cross-segmental transfer may theoretically operate via interhemispheric facilitation, warranting further investigation in larger, adequately powered trials. Full article

Background/Objectives: Children and adolescents on the autism spectrum often experience delays in both gross and fine motor skills, which can limit their participation in physical activity and everyday tasks. Methods: This narrative review synthesizes evidence from 88 peer-reviewed studies examining fundamental motor skills, broader motor competence, and perceived motor competence in individuals aged 3–18 years with a formal diagnosis of autism. Results: Across the literature, children with autism consistently demonstrate lower proficiency in locomotor and object control skills compared with their typically developing peers, while perceived competence emerges as an important factor influencing motivation and engagement. Intervention studies—most commonly school-based or structured physical activity programs—generally report short-term improvements in motor performance, although outcomes vary depending on study design, dosage, and assessment tools. The review also highlights substantial methodological heterogeneity and a notable lack of evidence concerning adolescents, underscoring the need for longitudinal and developmentally sensitive research. Conclusions: Practical implications are discussed for creating supportive movement environments in educational and adapted physical activity settings. This review follows a narrative synthesis approach informed by a structured search strategy. Full article

The relation between motor skills and reading performance among young children has been explored in existing studies, but few of them focused on gross motor skills, and these demonstrated inconsistent findings. The current study aimed to examine the relationship between gross motor proficiency and reading abilities among Chinese primary school students (N = 107, mean age = 8.70 years). Participants completed measures of a non-verbal intelligence test, a gross motor proficiency test, and reading ability tests that assess their Chinese phonological awareness, Chinese morphological awareness, vocabulary knowledge, and reading comprehension. The results of correlational and regression analyses revealed a weak association between gross motor level and each component of reading achievement. Meanwhile, the correlation between gross motor proficiency and morphological awareness, as well as between gross motor proficiency and reading comprehension, did not reach statistical significance. In conclusion, the present study justified the negligible predictive power of gross motor proficiency on reading abilities among Chinese young students. Full article

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is among the most prevalent disorders in children and is frequently linked with motor difficulties that can impact both daily motor tasks and overall developmental trajectories. The objective of this study was to analyse the association between gross motor skills and ADHD symptoms. Using a cross-sectional research design, data were collected from a sample of primary school children (N = 2677; mean age = 8.58 years, SD = 1.49 years). The Gross Motor Development-3 Test (TGMD-3) was employed to assess participants’ gross motor skills, whereas the ADHD Rating Scale (SDAI), completed by teachers, evaluated ADHD symptoms through two subscales: inattention and impulsivity/hyperactivity. The results revealed an association between motor development and ADHD symptoms, with greater proficiency in gross motor skills correlating with lower symptoms reported on the SDAI. Logistic regression analyses indicated that the TGMD-3 was significantly associated with the risk of ADHD in matched samples of at-risk children and controls. The evaluation of gross motor development proves to be a useful tool for monitoring global development, paying attention to any critical issues, particularly in relation to the variables of inattention and hyperactivity. Full article

The objective of this research was to examine a 12-week exercise program and its impact on the motor proficiency and cognitive abilities of preschool children with overweight and normal weight. The study involved a total of 71 participants who were preschool children enrolled in a longitudinal study. Body mass index (BMI) was determined by measuring body height and weight, and the nutritional status of the children was assessed using the World Health Organization’s (WHO) criteria. Motor proficiency encompasses both motor abilities and motor skills, and the assessment of motor abilities was conducted using subtests from the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2). These subtests measured fine motor integration, manual dexterity, balance, and bilateral coordination. The evaluation of motor skills involved the utilization of the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2), which examines both locomotor skills and manipulative skills. Cognitive abilities were assessed using the School Maturity Test (TZS). All participants, regardless of weight status, took part in a 12-week physical exercise program. According to the World Health Organization’s criteria, 52 children (73.2%) were categorized as having a normal weight, while 19 children (26.8%) were classified as overweight. These findings indicate that every fourth child in the study was overweight. Using a statistical analysis called SPANOVA (2 × 2, group × time), differences were observed in three out of eleven variables. Specifically, there were significant differences in two motor skill variables: manipulative skills (p = 0.006) and total movement skills (p = 0.014). Additionally, there was a significant difference in one cognitive ability variable: visual memory (p = 0.010). No significant differences were found in the remaining variables. The findings of this study aimed to contribute to the understanding of the potential benefits of regular exercise on motor and cognitive development in preschool children, specifically examining the differences between overweight and normal-weight children. By investigating these effects, the study could provide valuable insights for educators, parents, and health professionals involved in promoting the overall well-being of preschool-aged children. Regular physical exercise has been found to have positive effects on motor and cognitive abilities in both overweight and normal-weight preschool children. Full article

This paper aimed to analyze fundamental movement skill (FMS) assessment tools that could be used for primary school children. In this narrative review, the Motoriktest für Vier- bis Sechjärige Kinder (MOT 4–6), Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (M-ABC-2), Motorische Basiskompetenzen (MOBAK) Körperkoordinationtest für Kinder (KTK), Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD), Maastricht Motoriek Test (MMT) and the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) were analyzed from a methodological perspective, such as the number of test items, tools and types of tests, in terms of the FMS area. The analysis revealed that to assess locomotor movement skills, the BOT-2 has an excellent test for running ability, but for detecting technical difficulties, the TGMD is recommended. To test hopping, the MMT is the best test. Object control movement skills are measured with throws, dribbles and catches. Most of the tools assessed these skills, but it turned out that the TGMD is the best for measuring object control. Stability movement skills are tested with static and dynamic balance tests. Dynamic balance is more frequently used, and the MOT 4–6, KTK and BOT-2 have the most tools to use. However, the MMT is an excellent test for static balance. Fine motor movement skills are easy to assess with the MMT and MOT 4–6, since they have low equipment requirements. The BOT-2 is the best measurement tool; however, it has high equipment requirements. All of the FMS assessment tools are good; however, we concluded that although these tools are excellent for research purposes, they are difficult to apply in a school setting. Thus, teachers and coaches are advised to always select a single task from the available assessment tools that is appropriate for the skills they would like to measure. Full article

Higher physical activity (PA) levels will obtain more health-related benefits for children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID). The mastery of fundamental movement skills (FMS) potentially correlates with PA. This study aimed to examine the associations of FMS with moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) levels in children and adolescents with moderate to severe ID. Moreover, this research analyzes whether there are gender and age differences in the association between these two variables. A total of 93 children and adolescents with ID, aged 8–17 years (mean age = 13.27; SD = 3.35), were recruited from a special school located in western China. The time spent in MVPA was measured using waist-worn accelerometers. FMS proficiency was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2). Children and adolescents with ID tend to have delayed maturity of FMS patterns (locomotor skills t (92) = −16.91, p < 0.001, d = 2.48; object control skills t (92) = −25.39, p < 0.001, d = 3.72; total FMS t (92) = −21.83, p < 0.001, d = 3.20) and lower proficiency in objective control skills (t (92) = 3.989, p < 0.001, d = 0.29). A significant positive correlation was found between MVPA and FMS, and this association was moderated by gender and age. For boys, object control skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.842, p < 0.01), whereas locomotor skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.472, p < 0.05) for girls. For children with ID, object control skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.736, p < 0.05). Proficiency in FMS has a positive effect on increasing the level of MVPA in children and adolescents with ID. Gender and age factors should be considered when implementing FMS intervention programs. Full article

The assessment of motor proficiency is essential across childhood to identify children’s strengths and difficulties and to provide adequate instruction and opportunities; assessment is a powerful tool to promote children’s development. This study aimed to investigate the hierarchal order of the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) items regarding difficulty levels and the differential item functioning across gender and age group (3 to 5, 6 to 8, and 9 to 10 years old). Participants are 989 children (3 to 10.9 years; girls n = 491) who were assessed using TGMD-3. For locomotor skills, appropriate results reliability (alpha = 1.0), infit (M = 0.99; SD = 0.17), outfit (M = 1.18; SD = 0.64), and point-biserial correlations (rpb values from 0.14 to 0.58) were found; the trend was similar for ball skills: reliability (alpha = 1.0), infit (M = 0.99; SD = 0.13), outfit (M = 1.08; SD = 0.52); point-biserial correlations (rpb values from 0.06 to 0.59) were obtained. Two motor criteria: gallop, item-1, and one-hand forehand strike, item-4, were the most difficult items; in contrast, run, item-2, and two-hand catch, item-2, were the easiest items. Differential item functioning for age was observed in nine locomotor and ten ball skills items. These items were easier for older children compared to younger ones. The TGMD-3 has items with different difficulty levels capable of differential functioning across age groups. Full article

Gross motor coordination (GMC) is essential for the development of specific motor skills and long-term participation in physical activities and sports. Group analysis reveals that, on average, children develop these skills gradually; however, how individuals develop GMC is less clear. The main aim of this study is to increase the understanding of developmental patterns within one school year, and whether children’s grade, gender, or baseline GMC proficiency are associated with these developmental patterns. In total, 2594 Dutch children aged 6–12 years performed the modified Körper Koordinations Test für Kinder (KTK3+) twice in one school year (autumn and spring). The KTK3+ includes four subtests: walking backwards, moving sideways, jumping sideways, and eye-hand coordination (EHC) test. On average, children developed significantly on all subtests (p < 0.001). At baseline, children in higher grades scored significantly higher than children in lower grades, and children in grades 5 and 6 (age 9 and 10 years) showed most development (raw scores on average, p < 0.001). Boys outperformed girls on EHC across all grades, whereas girls outperformed boys on walking backwards. Nevertheless, both boys and girls developed similarly. Children with lower scores at baseline developed more quickly across all grades. Noteworthy is that 12.1–24% (depending on the test item) of the children scored lower in the spring than in the autumn tests. On average, children develop their GMC; however, we report large differences in their individual trajectories and note that a substantial number did not show a positive GMC development. Further research should examine GMC development with more possible influencing factors as well as over a longer time span to better understand differences in children’s GMC development. This may result in more individualized programs in PE lessons, enabling children to optimally develop their GMC, and better use of GMC assessment tools to monitor children’s development. Full article

Objectives: The purpose of this research is to examine whether perceived fundamental movement skills (FMS) competence mediated the relationship between actual FMS and physical activity (PA) in Hong Kong preschool-aged children. Design: A cross−sectional study. Methods: 148 preschool-aged children (43% girls; mean age = 4.52 ± 0.67 years) from five preschools/childcare centres completed all assessments. Actual FMS was rated using the Test of Gross Motor Development−2, whilst perceived FMS was assessed via the Pictorial Scale for Perceived Movement Skill Competence. PA was measured through accelerometry. A bootstrap method was used to assess the potential mediating effect of perceived movement skill competence on the relationship between actual FMS and PA. All mediation models were adjusted for sex and age. Results: Mediation analyses showed that the direct path between actual FMS and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was significant (b = 0.228, p = 0.008), as was the path between MVPA and actual FMS (b = 0.214, p = 0.008). However, perceived FMS competence did not mediate the association between actual FMS and MVPA in the models. Conclusions: Our results showed evidence of reciprocal pathways between actual FMS and MVPA, reinforcing the need to simultaneously target both domains as part of broader developmental strategies, initiated in early childhood. Unlike emergent adolescence, perceptions of movement skill competence do not play a significant role in influencing the relationship between actual FMS proficiency and MVPA in this developmental period. Full article

Early childhood is a key period for children to begin developing and practicing fundamental movement skills (FMS), while aiming to perform sufficient physical activity (PA). This study reviews the current evidence for the levels of achievement in FMS and PA measured using accelerometers among 4–5-year-old children and examines differences by gender. This review was conducted using the PRISMA framework. Keyword searches were conducted in Pubmed, Medline, Google Scholar and SPORTDiscus. Inclusion criteria included age: 4–5 years old; FMS measurement: Test of Gross Motor Development 2 and 3; PA measurement: objective methods; balance measurement: static single limb; study design: cross-sectional observational/descriptive, randomised control trials, intervention studies; language: English. Twenty-eight articles from twenty-one countries met the inclusion criteria and were split into either FMS and PA articles (n = 10) or balance articles (n = 18). Three articles showed children achieving 60 min of moderate to vigorous PA per day, two articles demonstrated significant differences between girls’ and boys’ performance of locomotor skills and five reported locomotor skills to be more proficient than object control skills at this age for both genders. Balance was measured in time (n = 12), points score (n = 3) or biomechanical variables (n = 3), displaying heterogeneity of not only measurement but also outcomes within these data, with static single limb balance held between 6.67 to 87.6 s within the articles. Four articles reported girls to have better balance than boys. There is little conclusive evidence of the current levels for FMS, PA and balance achievement in young children 4–5 years of age. The academic literature consistently reports low levels of FMS competence and mixed evidence for PA levels. Inconsistencies lie in balance measurement methodology, with broad-ranging outcomes of both low and high achievement at 4–5 years old. Further research is required to focus on increasing practice opportunities for children to improve their FMS, increase PA levels and establish sufficient balance ability. Consistent and comparable outcomes during early childhood through more homogenous methodologies are warranted. Full article

Child obesity is associated with poor health and reduced motor skills. This study aimed to assess the diagnostic accuracy of the KidFit Screening Tool for identifying children with overweight/obesity, reduced motor skills and reduced cardiorespiratory fitness. Fifty-seven children (mean age: 12.57 ± 1.82 years; male/female: 34/23) were analysed. The Speed and Agility Motor Screen (SAMS) and the Modified Shuttle Test-Paeds (MSTP) made up the KidFit Screening Tool. Motor Proficiency (BOT2) (Total and Gross) was also measured. BMI, peak-oxygen-uptake (VO2peak) were measured with a representative sub-sample (n = 25). Strong relationships existed between the independent variables included in the KidFit Screening Tool and; BMI (R² = 0.779, p < 0.001); Gross Motor Proficiency (R² = 0.612, p < 0.001) and VO2peak (mL/kg/min) (R² = 0.754, p < 0.001). The KidFit Screening Tool has a correct classification rate of 0.84 for overweight/obesity, 0.77 for motor proficiency and 0.88 for cardiorespiratory fitness. The sensitivity and specificity of the KidFit Screening Tool for identifying children with overweight/obesity was 100% (SE = 0.00) and 78.95%, respectively (SE = 0.09), motor skills in the lowest quartile was 90% (SE = 0.095) and 74.47% (SE = 0.064), respectively, and poor cardiorespiratory fitness was 100% (SE = 0.00) and 82.35% (SE = 0.093), respectively. The KidFit Screening Tool has a strong relationship with health- and performance-related fitness, is accurate for identifying children with health- and performance-related fitness impairments and may assist in informing referral decisions for detailed clinical investigations. Full article

Swimming pool activities revealed to be efficacious to train psychomotor skills and increase adaptive behaviors in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a specific multi-systemic aquatic therapy (CI-MAT) on gross motor and social skills in three adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Methods: three adolescents with ASD of which two boys (M1 with a chronological age of 10.3 years and a mental age of 4.7 years; M2 with a chronological age of 14.6 and a mental age inferior to 4 years) and one girl (chronological age of 14.0 and a mental age inferior to 4 years). The study was divided into three phases: baseline, 12-week CI-MAT program and Post-Test. Participants were administered a battery of tests incorporating anthropometric measurements, gross motor development test and a social skills questionnaire before and after a 12-week MAT-CI program. Results: Subjects improved locomotors and object control skills following the CI-MAT program in a different way. Concerning social behaviors, the higher proportion of gains was observed in the sensitivity of other’s presence and eye contact, for the contact domain, and in the comply turn for the relationship domain. Conclusions: The results of this study showed that the CI-MAT program was effective for the development of gross-motor skills and social behaviors in subjects with ASD. Moreover there is an urge to carry out a whole psychological assessment targeting both motor and adaptive development suitable to provide educational and vocational plans of exercises for people with ASD. Full article

Positive associations exist between physical activity, cognition, and academic performance in children and adolescents. Further research is required to examine which factors underpin the relationships between physical activity and academic performance. This systematic review aimed to identify, critically appraise, and synthesize findings of studies examining relationships between motor proficiency and academic performance in mathematics and reading in typically developing school-aged children and adolescents. A systematic search of electronic databases was performed to identify relevant studies. Fifty-five eligible articles were critically appraised and key data was extracted and synthesized. Findings support associations between several components of motor proficiency and academic performance in mathematics and reading. There was evidence that fine motor proficiency was significantly and positively associated with academic performance in mathematics and reading, particularly during the early years of school. Significant positive associations were also evident between academic performance and components of gross motor proficiency, specifically speed and agility, upper-limb coordination, and total gross motor scores. Preliminary evidence from a small number of experimental studies suggests motor skill interventions in primary school settings may have a positive impact on academic performance in mathematics and/or reading. Future research should include more robust study designs to explore more extensively the impact of motor skill interventions on academic performance. Full article

This study examines the relationship between actual fundamental motor skill (FMS) proficiency, perceived motor confidence and competence, and physical activity (PA) among female children (n= 160; mean age = 10.69 ± 1.40 years). The Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition (TGMD-2) was used to assess seven FMSs (locomotor, object-control, and stability). Motor confidence and competence were assessed using a valid skill-specific scale, and a modified version of the Self-Perception Profile for Children. PA levels were assessed using self-report (PA Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQ-C)) and classified as low, moderate, and high active. One-way and two-way ANOVAs (post-hoc honest significant difference (HSD)) and correlation coefficients were used to analyse the data. Findings indicate that the majority of youth (71.8%) were not meeting the minimum 60 min of daily PA recommended for health, and that 98.1% did not achieve the FMS proficiency expected for their age. While there were high levels of perceived physical self-confidence (PSC) reported within FMS skill-specific tasks, there was no significant correlation observed between actual FMS proficiency and perceived PSC among the cohort. Results show that low, moderately, and highly active female participants differ significantly in terms of their overall FMS (p = 0.03) and locomotor (LOC) control scores (p = 0.03). Results from a two-way between-groups analysis of variance also revealed no statistically significant interaction effect between PA grouping and physical performance self-concept (PPSC) on overall FMS proficiency levels. Results of a multiple linear regression indicate that perceived PSC is a significant predictor (beta = 0.183) of participants’ overall PA levels. Data show a need for targeting low levels of PA, and low FMS proficiency in female youth, and for developing interventions aiming to enhance perceived PSC levels. Full article