Search Results (43)

The increasing demand for sustainable and functional plant-based foods has driven interest in 3D food printing technologies, which require bioinks with tailored rheological and structural properties. This study investigated the effects of transglutaminase (TGase) on the structure–function relationships of plant protein bioinks from fava bean, mung bean, pea, and soybean. TNBS assays showed a dose-dependent increase in crosslinking (27.46–64.57%), with soybean and pea proteins exhibiting the highest reactivity (p < 0.05). ¹H-NMR confirmed protein-specific ε-(γ-glutamyl)lysine bond formation, and synchrotron FTIR revealed TGase-induced α-helix reduction and β-sheet enrichment, indicative of network formation across all proteins. SDS-PAGE analysis demonstrated TGase-mediated polymerization with high-molecular-weight aggregates, particularly pronounced in soybean, while SEM images revealed denser, more continuous protein networks compared to untreated samples. Rheological characterization showed enhanced viscoelasticity and shear-thinning behavior in all bioinks, supporting extrusion and post-printing stability. Textural analysis indicated improvements in hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness across all proteins, with soybean and fava showing the most pronounced increases. These results demonstrate that TGase is a versatile tool for reinforcing plant protein networks, improving printability, structural integrity, and texture in 3D-printed foods, while highlighting protein-specific differences in response. Full article

The growing accumulation of plastic and electronic waste highlights the urgent need for sustainable and biodegradable polymers. However, developing intrinsically conductive biodegradable polymers remains challenging, particularly for packaging and sensing applications. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is intrinsically non-conductive, and enhancing its functionality without compromising structural integrity is a key research goal. In this study, PLA-based filaments were developed using melt extrusion, incorporating cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), individually and in hybrid combinations with total filler contents between 1 and 5 wt%. The inclusion of CNC enhanced the dispersion of GNP and CNT, promoting the formation of interconnected conductive networks within the PLA matrix, allowing the percolation threshold to be reached at a lower fillers concentration. Hybrid formulations showed a balance melt strength and processability suitable for fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printing and prototypes successfully made. This study also provides the first systematic evaluation of temperature-dependent thermal conductivity of PLA-based composites at multiple temperatures (25, 5, and −20 °C), relevant to typical food and medical supply chains conditions. Full article

Yeast protein (YP) offers nutritional and sustainable benefits; however, its poor gelation properties limit its use in soft material formulations. This study investigates the rheological behavior and the formation of crosslinked networks using YP–polysaccharide mixtures for extrusion-based 3D printing. Binary bioink blends with alginate (Alg) or xanthan gum (XG) showed enhanced viscosity and exhibited shear-thinning properties. However, a high concentration of Alg negatively affected the material’s thixotropic recovery. On the other hand, YP–XG bioink displayed more pronounced elastic behavior and demonstrated thixotropic recovery, though they lacked the capacity for ionic crosslinking. A triple bioink formulation consisting of 8% (w/v) YP, 2% (w/v) Alg, and 0.5% (w/v) XG effectively combined the advantages of both polysaccharides. Alg provided structural stability through calcium crosslinking, while XG offered rheological flexibility. These bioinks were successfully printed using embedded 3D printing and maintained their shape fidelity after printing. The crosslinked triple hydrogel exhibited good mechanical strength, volume retention after crosslinking, structural integrity under compression of up to 70%, and recovery after deformation that indicates high structural stability. This research presents an effective strategy to enhance the application of yeast-derived proteins in sustainable, animal-free 3D printed food products and other soft biomaterials. Full article

The integration of 3D printers into food production represents an unprecedented innovation, envisaging applications from the industry to missions in space to home cooking, with no geographical or sectoral limits. Extrusion food 3D printers are designed to use ‘food inks’ that must be produced from raw materials possessing a range of suitable characteristics (viscosity, elasticity, and others) that make them printable. Not all food matrices possess such characteristics, and additives are often needed to formulate food inks, which must also adapt to the complexity of the 3D model to be printed. Initially, mainly food matrices such as potatoes, chocolate, cereal, and legume flours and soluble-fiber-rich additives were tested with this new technology, with promising results. In recent years, alternative food matrices (e.g., based on insects, algae, cultured meat, and food waste) have begun to be experimented with, as 3D printing appears to be a suitable way to exploit their potential. This review aims to highlight recent studies that have investigated the development of innovative food ink formulations and trace a picture of the new food raw materials that are being tested for 3D food printing, the opportunities they represent, their nutritional properties, safety, and technological challenges. This review considered a total of 46 papers, selected from 330 papers published in the last 8 years (2018–2025) on the generic subject of 3D food printing. Full article

In this paper, a new 3D printing system based on temperature–pressure double closed-loop collaborative control is proposed to solve the problem of 3D printing accuracy of starch food. The rapid and accurate adjustment of the nozzle temperature is realized by the hybrid control of Bang-Bang and PID, and the extrusion pressure is optimized in real time by combining the adaptive fuzzy PID algorithm, which effectively reduces the influence from the change of material rheological properties and external interference. The experimental results show that the printing accuracy of the system is up to 98% at 40 °C, the pressure fluctuation is reduced by 80%, and the molding accuracy of complex structures is improved to 97%, which significantly improves the over-extrusion and under-extrusion, and provides an effective solution for stable and high-precision printing of high-viscosity food materials. Full article

Edible hydrogels are the central material class in 3D food printing because they reconcile two competing needs: (i) low resistance to flow under nozzle shear and (ii) fast recovery of elastic structure after deposition to preserve geometry. This review consolidates the recent years of progress on hydrogel formulations—gelatin, alginate, pectin, carrageenan, agar, starch-based gels, gellan, and cellulose derivatives, xanthan/konjac blends, protein–polysaccharide composites, and emulsion gels alongside a critical analysis of printing technologies relevant to food: extrusion, inkjet, binder jetting, and laser-based approaches. For each material, this review connects gelation triggers and compositional variables to rheology signatures that govern printability and then maps these to process windows and post-processing routes. This review consolidates a decision-oriented workflow for edible-hydrogel printability that links formulation variables, process parameters, and geometric fidelity through standardized test constructs (single line, bridge, thin wall) and rheology-anchored gates (e.g., yield stress and recovery). Building on these elements, a “printability map/window” is formalized to position inks within actionable operating regions, enabling recipe screening and process transfer. Compared with prior reviews, the emphasis is on decisions: what to measure, how to interpret it, and how to adjust inks and post-set enablers to meet target fidelity and texture. Reporting minima and a stability checklist are identified to close the loop from design to shelf. Full article

Three-dimensional (3D) printing based on polymers reinforced with lignocellulosic components is an accessible and sustainable technology. Cellulose-based byproducts from industry, as well as crops, food, and forestry wastes, represent potential resources for additive manufacturing and have been evaluated in recent years, primarily in combination with polymers such as PLA or ABS. During fused deposition modeling (FDM), several parameters must be considered during raw material conditioning, blending, extrusion, and 3D printing. It is essential to understand how these parameters influence the final properties and their impact on the final application. This review focuses on the latest studies of lignocellulosic byproducts for 3D printing filaments and how the parameters involved during filament production and 3D printing influence the properties of the final product. Recent studies concerning applications, technical issues, and environmental and regulatory aspects were also analyzed. Full article

This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of starch-based gel formulations enriched with proteins and hydrocolloids for extrusion-based 3D food printing (3DFP). Food inks were prepared using corn or potato starch, protein concentrates (fava, whey, rice, pea and soya), and hydrocolloids (κ-carrageenan, arabic gum, xanthan gum, and carboxy methylcellulose). Their rheological, mechanical, and textural properties were systematically analyzed to assess printability. Among all formulations, those containing κ-carrageenan consistently demonstrated superior viscoelastic behavior (G′ > 4000 Pa), optimal tan δ values (0.096–0.169), and yield stress conducive to stable extrusion. These inks also achieved high structural fidelity (93–96% accuracy) and favourable textural attributes such as increased hardness and chewiness. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations further validated the inks’ performances by linking pressure and velocity profiles with rheological parameters. FTIR analysis revealed that gel strengthening was primarily driven by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonding and electrostatic effects. The integration of empirical measurements and simulation provided a robust framework for evaluating and optimizing printable food gels. These findings contribute to the advancement of personalized and functional 3D-printed foods through data-driven formulation design. Full article

Gels are semi-solid colloidal systems characterized by three-dimensional networks capable of retaining up to 99% of liquid while exhibiting both solid-like and liquid-like properties. A novel biphasic system, the bigel, consists of hydrogel and oleogel, enabling the encapsulation of hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds. Their structure and functionality are influenced by the distribution of gel phases (e.g., oleogel-in-hydrogel or hydrogel-in-oleogel). This study aims to review current trends in polysaccharide-based bigels derived from seeds, vegetable oils and waxes, highlighting their biocompatibility, sustainability and potential food applications. A bibliometric analysis of 157 documents using VOSviewer identified four key thematic clusters: structured materials, delivery systems, pharmaceutical applications, and physicochemical characterization. Principal component analysis revealed strong correlations between terms, while also highlighting emerging areas such as 3D printing. This analysis demonstrated that seed-derived polysaccharides, including chia seed mucilage and guar gum, improve bigel structure and rheological properties, offering sustainable plant-based alternatives. Additionally, innovations such as extrusion-based 3D printing, functional food design, controlled drug release, bioactive compound delivery, and fat replacement are helping to support the further development of these systems. Finally, bibliometric tools remain instrumental in identifying research gaps and guiding future directions in this field. Full article

There is a pressing need to produce novel food ingredients from sustainable sources to support a growing population. Filamentous fungi can be readily cultivated from low-cost agricultural byproducts to produce functional proteins for food biomanufacturing of structured products. However, there is a lack of scientific knowledge on the gelling characteristics of fungal proteins or their potential in additive biomanufacturing. Therefore, this study investigated the feasibility of utilizing fungal protein extracts and flours from Aspergillus awamori, Pleurotus ostreatus, Auricularia auricula-judae as sole gelling agents in 3D-printed products. Protein extracts were successfully prepared using the alkaline extraction–isoelectric precipitation method and successful physical gels were created after heating and cooling. Results indicated that shear-thinning gel materials could be formed with acceptable printability at mass inclusion rates between 15% and 25% with the best performance obtained with P. ostreatus protein extract at 25% inclusion. A. auricula-judae demonstrated promising rheological characteristics but further optimization is needed to create homogeneous products appropriate for extrusion-based 3D printing. This work provides valuable insights for continued development of 3D-printed foods with filamentous fungi. Full article

Three-dimensional (3D) printing attracts significant interest in the food industry for its ability to create complex structures and customize nutritional content. Printing materials, or inks, are specially formulated for food or nutraceuticals. These inks must exhibit proper rheological properties to flow smoothly during printing and form stable final structures. This study evaluates the relationship between rheological properties and printability in phytosterol-enriched monoglyceride (MG) oleogel-based inks, intended for nutraceutical applications. Key rheological factors, including gelation temperature (Tg), elastic (G′) and viscous (G″) modulus, and viscosity (µ) behavior with shear rate ($\dot{\gamma }$), were analyzed for their impact on flow behavior and post-extrusion stability. Furthermore, this study allowed the development of an operation map to predict successful printing based on material µ and Tg. Oleogels (OGs) were prepared with high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) and 10 wt% MG, enriched with phytosterols (PSs) at concentrations between 0 and 40 wt%. While higher PS content generally led to an increase in both Tg and µ, the 10 wt% PS mixture exhibited a different behavior, showing lower Tg and µ compared to the 0 wt% and 5 wt% PS mixtures. The optimal PS concentration was identified as 20 wt%, which exhibited optimal properties for 3D printing, with a Tg of 78.37 °C and µ values ranging from 0.013 to 0.032 Pa.s that yielded excellent flowability and adequate G′ (3.07 × 10⁶ Pa) at room temperature for self-supporting capability. These characteristics, visualized on the operational map, suggest that 20% PS OGs meet ideal criteria for successful extrusion and layered deposition in 3D printing. Full article

This study utilizes a lab-developed pneumatic-extrusion condensing 3D food printer to prepare astragalus–starch mixed gels by blending different ratios of astragalus polysaccharide and wheat starch and applies these gels to 3D printing experiments. The aim of this paper is to investigate the impacts of mixed-gel concentrations on printing outcomes in order to identify the optimal blending ratio. Under this rationale, the effects of printing layer height and nozzle diameter on print quality were studied. Single-factor analysis and response surface methodology were employed to optimize the experiments and determine the optimal printing process parameters for the astragalus–starch mixed gels. The results indicate that an increase in astragalus polysaccharide content leads to a decrease in the sedimentation rate of the mixed gels and a tendency towards a more fluid consistency. After storage of samples in a sealed space for equal durations, it was found that an increase in astragalus polysaccharide content enhances the textural properties of the mixed gels, with optimal printing effects achieved at a 2% polysaccharide content. The optimal print quality is achieved when the ratio of nozzle diameter to layer height is between 0.5 and 0.55. The influence order of printing process parameters on the overall completion rate of the samples is nozzle diameter > printing speed > fill rate. The predicted optimal printing parameters are a nozzle diameter of 0.6 mm, a printing speed of 767 mm/min, and a fill rate of 83%, with a predicted overall completion rate of the printed samples at 99.45%. Experimental validation revealed an actual overall completion rate of the printed samples at 99.52%, slightly higher than the predicted value. This discrepancy was attributed to the precision of the measurement methods and the variability in the printing process. The study demonstrates that the addition of astragalus polysaccharide significantly improves the 3D printing molding effect of wheat starch, and the printing parameter settings obtained by response surface optimization effectively enhance printing accuracy. This research provides experimental evidence and parameter optimization references for the application of non-starch polysaccharides in starch-based 3D food printing. Full article

Extrusion-based three-dimensional (3D) food printing (3DFP) enhances the customization of 3D-printed foods by using multiple food pastes. Post-printing processes like baking are usually necessary and significantly impact the stability of the 3D-printed foods. This study aimed to produce multi-material 3D-printed foods using nixtamalized corn dough and chickpea paste (CP) in extrusion-based 3DFP and to study the effect of post-printing processes (water oven cooking and steam cooking) and the type of material used (single- or multi-material) on the final appearance, weight, size, and texture of the 3D-printed foods. Multi-material 3D-printed foods were successfully produced using extrusion-based 3DFP. Steam-cooked 3D-printed foods cooked uniformly and had a better appearance, as they did not develop surface cracks compared to water oven-cooked foods. Water-oven cooked foods experienced a greater weight loss of 35.6%, and higher height and length reduction of 1.5% and 8.4%, respectively. Steam-cooked multi-material 3D-printed foods were harder at 40% of strain, with force values of 66.9 and 46.3 N for water-oven cooked foods. Post-printing processes, as well as the presence of CP in the middle of the 3D-printed foods, influenced their final appearance, weight, size, and texture. This study offers interesting findings for the innovative design of chickpea- and corn-based multi-material 3D-printed foods. Full article

The markets for plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) are growing worldwide, showing the increasing consumer demand for and acceptance of these new products. Three-dimensional (3D) food printing is a new technology with huge potential for printing products customised to suit consumers’ wants and needs. There is a broad acceptance from consumers regarding the safety and desirability of consuming food products that are produced using 3D printing. As this is a new technology, consumers must be provided with relevant information from a trusted source, with further research needing to be conducted within the context of the identified market and culture. By embracing the strength of customisation of 3D printing and coupling this with the global demand for plant-based products, 3D printed PBMAs could be a future challenger to the currently popular production method of extrusion. Therefore, this article reviews consumer interests in PBMAs and summarises opportunities for using 3D printing technology to produce plant-based meat analogues. Full article

Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology was able to generate great attention because of its unique methodology and for its major potential to manufacture detailed and customizable scaffolds in terms of size, shape and pore structure in fields like medicine, pharmaceutics and food. This study aims to fabricate an ink entirely composed of natural polymers, alginate, k-carrageenan and carboxymethyl cellulose (AkCMC). Extrusion-based 3D printing was used to obtain scaffolds based on a crosslinked interpenetrating polymer network from the alginate, k-carrageenan, carboxymethyl cellulose and glutaraldehide formulation using CaCl₂, KCl and glutaraldehyde in various concentrations of acetic acid. The stabile bonding of the crosslinked scaffolds was assessed using infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) as well as swelling, degradation and mechanical investigations. Moreover, morphology analysis (µCT and SEM) confirmed the 3D printed samples’ porous structure. In the AkCMC-GA objects crosslinked with the biggest acetic acid concentration, the values of pores and walls are the highest, at 3.9 × 10⁻² µm⁻¹. Additionally, this research proves the encapsulation of vitamin B1 via FT-IR and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The highest encapsulation efficiency of vitamin B1 was registered for the AkCMC-GA samples crosslinked with the maximum acetic acid concentration. The kinetic release of the vitamin was evaluated by UV-Vis spectroscopy. Based on the results of these experiments, 3D printed constructs using AkCMC-GA ink could be used for soft tissue engineering applications and also for vitamin B1 encapsulation. Full article