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Volume 15
Issue 2
10.3390/foods15020322
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Article

Plant-Based Protein Bioinks with Transglutaminase Crosslinking: 3D Printability and Molecular Insights from NMR and Synchrotron-FTIR

by
Jaksuma Pongsetkul
1,
Sarayut Watchasit
2,
Tanyamon Petcharat
3,
Marcellus Arnold
4,
Yolanda Victoria Rajagukguk
5,
Passakorn Kingwascharapong
6,
Supatra Karnjanapratum
7,
Pimonpan Kaewprachu
8,
Lutz Grossmann
9,
Young Hoon Jung
10,
Saroat Rawdkuen
11 and
Samart Sai-Ut
12,*
1
School of Animal Technology and Innovation, Institute of Agricultural Technology, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand
2
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand
3
Professional Culinary Arts Program, School of Management, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80161, Thailand
4
Department of Gastronomy Science and Functional Foods, Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 31, 60-624 Poznań, Poland
5
Department of Food Quality and Safety Management, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 31/33, 60-624 Poznań, Poland
6
Department of Fishery Products, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
7
Faculty of Agro-Industry, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
8
Faculty of Agro-Industry, Chiang Mai University, Samut Sakhon 74000, Thailand
9
Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 102 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, MA 01002, USA
10
School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
11
Food Science and Technology Program, School of Agro-Industry, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
12
Department of Food Science, Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand
 
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Foods 2026, 15(2), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15020322 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 23 December 2025 / Revised: 8 January 2026 / Accepted: 12 January 2026 / Published: 15 January 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Nutraceuticals, Functional Foods, and Novel Foods)
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Abstract

The increasing demand for sustainable and functional plant-based foods has driven interest in 3D food printing technologies, which require bioinks with tailored rheological and structural properties. This study investigated the effects of transglutaminase (TGase) on the structure–function relationships of plant protein bioinks from fava bean, mung bean, pea, and soybean. TNBS assays showed a dose-dependent increase in crosslinking (27.46–64.57%), with soybean and pea proteins exhibiting the highest reactivity (p < 0.05). 1H-NMR confirmed protein-specific ε-(γ-glutamyl)lysine bond formation, and synchrotron FTIR revealed TGase-induced α-helix reduction and β-sheet enrichment, indicative of network formation across all proteins. SDS-PAGE analysis demonstrated TGase-mediated polymerization with high-molecular-weight aggregates, particularly pronounced in soybean, while SEM images revealed denser, more continuous protein networks compared to untreated samples. Rheological characterization showed enhanced viscoelasticity and shear-thinning behavior in all bioinks, supporting extrusion and post-printing stability. Textural analysis indicated improvements in hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness across all proteins, with soybean and fava showing the most pronounced increases. These results demonstrate that TGase is a versatile tool for reinforcing plant protein networks, improving printability, structural integrity, and texture in 3D-printed foods, while highlighting protein-specific differences in response.
Keywords: rheology; gelation; structure–function relationship; enzymatic modification; plant protein gels rheology; gelation; structure–function relationship; enzymatic modification; plant protein gels
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MDPI and ACS Style

Pongsetkul, J.; Watchasit, S.; Petcharat, T.; Arnold, M.; Rajagukguk, Y.V.; Kingwascharapong, P.; Karnjanapratum, S.; Kaewprachu, P.; Grossmann, L.; Jung, Y.H.; et al. Plant-Based Protein Bioinks with Transglutaminase Crosslinking: 3D Printability and Molecular Insights from NMR and Synchrotron-FTIR. Foods 2026, 15, 322. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15020322

AMA Style

Pongsetkul J, Watchasit S, Petcharat T, Arnold M, Rajagukguk YV, Kingwascharapong P, Karnjanapratum S, Kaewprachu P, Grossmann L, Jung YH, et al. Plant-Based Protein Bioinks with Transglutaminase Crosslinking: 3D Printability and Molecular Insights from NMR and Synchrotron-FTIR. Foods. 2026; 15(2):322. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15020322

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pongsetkul, Jaksuma, Sarayut Watchasit, Tanyamon Petcharat, Marcellus Arnold, Yolanda Victoria Rajagukguk, Passakorn Kingwascharapong, Supatra Karnjanapratum, Pimonpan Kaewprachu, Lutz Grossmann, Young Hoon Jung, and et al. 2026. "Plant-Based Protein Bioinks with Transglutaminase Crosslinking: 3D Printability and Molecular Insights from NMR and Synchrotron-FTIR" Foods 15, no. 2: 322. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15020322

APA Style

Pongsetkul, J., Watchasit, S., Petcharat, T., Arnold, M., Rajagukguk, Y. V., Kingwascharapong, P., Karnjanapratum, S., Kaewprachu, P., Grossmann, L., Jung, Y. H., Rawdkuen, S., & Sai-Ut, S. (2026). Plant-Based Protein Bioinks with Transglutaminase Crosslinking: 3D Printability and Molecular Insights from NMR and Synchrotron-FTIR. Foods, 15(2), 322. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15020322

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