Search Results (30)

Foodborne pathogens rely on colonization, biofilm formation, virulence expression, and environmental adaptation as fundamental biological drivers of food safety risk. Quorum sensing (QS), a cell-density-dependent microbial communication mechanism, coordinates the expression of these key phenotypes by integrating intraspecies, interspecies, and host-derived signals, making QS an attractive intervention target in food microbial control. Although QS research has advanced considerably in recent years, existing reviews have largely focused on individual bacterial species or specific classes of signal molecules. A systematic integration of how QS coordinately drives both food spoilage and pathogen virulence remains lacking. In this review, we conceptualize the QS network as a central regulatory hub connecting microbial signal perception to hazardous phenotype expression. We systematically examine the mechanistic roles of QS in food spoilage, biofilm formation, host colonization and invasion, and toxin production. We also summarize current QS-targeted intervention strategies, including inhibition of signal synthesis, enzymatic signal degradation, receptor antagonism, and indirect regulation via beneficial microorganisms. Building on the available evidence, we further analyze the key challenges limiting practical application: signal system specificity, ecological safety, industrial-scale feasibility, and microbial adaptability. Overall, QS-based strategies offer a non-bactericidal route for food microbial control, although substantial barriers remain for translation into complex food matrices. Reframing QS function and intervention from the perspective of food safety risk formation provides an analytical framework that bridges mechanistic understanding with practical application. This framework also establishes a theoretical foundation for developing next-generation food preservation and foodborne disease control strategies. Full article

The development of novel plant-based products using unconventional food matrices increases the risk of introducing mycotoxins into the food system. Biological detoxification methods, particularly those involving lactic acid bacteria (LAB), are considered sustainable and safe strategies. In this study, we screened 142 plant-derived LAB strains across 17 species for their fermentation performance and mycotoxin removal capacity during faba fermentation. Among them, 84 strains showed rapid acidification. The plating of 11 selected strains confirmed robust growth with cell densities ranging from 4 × 10⁸ to 2.18 × 10⁹ CFU/mL. Screening for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) removal in complex medium identified several strains that could reduce AFB1 in the supernatant. However, complete toxin extraction after faba fermentation indicated that AFB1 was not enzymatically degraded. Similarly, no significant degradation of ochratoxin A or zearalenone was observed during faba fermentation. Additionally, a cell binding test with 11 selected strains showed that all strains bound AFB1, with efficiencies from about 10% to 35%. Notably, Lentilactobacillus hilgardii NFICC857 demonstrated the highest binding capacity, which has never been reported before. Our study provides preliminary insight into plant-derived LAB in mycotoxin removal. Given the vast unexplored diversity of LAB in nature, the discovery of novel strains with enhanced mycotoxin-binding capacity and potential enzymatic degradation remains promising. Full article

Aflatoxins (AFs), toxic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus species, represent a major threat to food safety and public health due to their pronounced hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic effects. With increasing global contamination risks driven by climate change and agricultural practices, the development of effective detoxification strategies has become a critical priority. This review provides a comprehensive and mechanistic overview of current aflatoxin (AF) decontamination approaches, focusing on two principal pathways: adsorption and inhibition strategies. Adsorption mechanisms involve the physicochemical sequestration of aflatoxins by inorganic materials, biological adsorbents, and engineered nanocomposites, thereby reducing toxin bioavailability. In contrast, inhibition strategies target fungal growth, toxin biosynthesis pathways, or promote enzymatic and microbial degradation of aflatoxins, offering more specific and potentially sustainable control. We critically analyze the underlying mechanisms, advantages, and limitations of each approach, including issues related to specificity, environmental stability, safety, and interactions with food matrices. Particular emphasis is placed on the toxicological implications of detoxification processes, including the reduction in aflatoxin-induced health risks and the safety of degradation products. Finally, this review highlights the importance of integrating adsorption and inhibition strategies to achieve synergistic decontamination and detoxification effects. Future perspectives on multifunctional materials, biological control systems, and intelligent monitoring technologies are discussed to advance the development of efficient, safe, and sustainable aflatoxin mitigation strategies. Full article

Mycotoxins are one of the biggest threats to global food safety, public health, and economic stability. More than 400 mycotoxins have been found to be secondary metabolites of toxigenic fungi, mostly from the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria. Aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FBs), patulin (PAT), and T-2/HT-2 toxins are the most dangerous to the health of people and animals. Conventional physical and chemical decontamination methods are only partially effective and can reduce food quality, leave toxic residues, or be too expensive for smallholder food systems. Recent studies have shown that the application of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as a biological detoxification method is a safe, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly option, and has a long history of safe use in fermented foods. Selected strains or taxonomic units have been granted GRAS status by the FDA or QPS (Qualified Presumption of Safety) status by EFSA. However, their use for mycotoxin detoxification still requires strain-level safety assessment and efficacy validation in the intended food matrix. There are several mechanisms by which LAB employ to reduce the bioavailability of mycotoxins in food systems: (i) physical adsorption via cell wall components such as peptidoglycan, teichoic acids, and exopolysaccharides; (ii) enzymatic biotransformation that may produce non-toxic or less-toxic metabolites, though the safety of degradation products requires case-by-case toxicological assessment; (iii) antifungal metabolite production that inhibits fungal growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis; and (iv) competitive exclusion of toxigenic fungi during fermentation. This comprehensive review examines the existing evidence on the detoxification of major food mycotoxins by LAB, with an emphasis on mechanisms, strain-specific efficacy, food-matrix applications, and factors that affect detoxification efficacy. Discussion has also been made of translating in vitro findings to in vivo settings and food-scale applications, alongside regulatory frameworks, current challenges, and future research directions. The review also suggests ways to combine LAB with new technologies, such as encapsulation, genetic engineering, and fermentation optimization, to make food systems safer by synergistically controlling mycotoxins. Full article

Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A) injection into the bladder wall is a milestone in the treatment of urinary incontinence in patients with neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDOi) or overactive bladder syndrome (OABi) who are refractory to or unable to tolerate oral or transdermal therapies. However, the efficacy of BoNT/A is hampered by the low long-term adherence of patients to a treatment that requires repeated bladder injections under cystoscopy control. The discontinuation is particularly evident among incontinent patients with spontaneous voluntary voiding, regardless of whether the cause is NDOi or OABi, although clearly more marked among the latter group. In addition to the bother and pain associated with repeated cystoscopies, these patients show low tolerance to the high incidence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) and transient urinary retention, the two most common adverse events. Fewer injection points may render treatments less painful, apparently without reducing efficacy, but will not avoid the need for repeated cystoscopies, and no studies have demonstrated that such modification increases adherence. Eventually, accessing the bladder wall for BoNT/A administration via a transabdominal approach, under real-time ultrasound guidance, may overcome trans-urethral limitations, but the technique’s reproducibility remains unknown. An intensive investigation is ongoing to identify aids that facilitate the passage of the large, fragile BoNT/A molecule across the urothelium to reach the bladder nerves without injections. Electromotive Drug Administration (EMDA) of BoNT/A demonstrated efficacy and safety over a 6-year follow-up in NDOi patients at a single center, but the results were not reproduced at other institutions. The application of shock waves to the bladder using shock waves generated by Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESWL) machines to tear the urothelium and facilitate the passage of BoNT/A instilled in the bladder is ingenious, but the experience is very limited. Dimethyl sulfoxide, liposomes, and thermal-reversal hydrogel to deliver the toxin failed in pilot trials. BoNT/A in nano-formulations has high heat stability, resistance to pH changes, and to enzymatic degradation. Extended efficacy in dermal and intramuscular pilot applications is promising but needs to be replicated in the bladder. Full article

Trichothecene mycotoxins, especially T-2 toxin, represent a significant threat to food safety and public health. Although the enzymatic degradation of deoxynivalenol has been extensively investigated, there are few reports of enzymes capable of efficiently degrading T-2 toxin. This study identified that the aldo-keto reductase AKR13B3 from Devosia A6-243 exhibits 3-keto-DON-degrading and a little T-2 toxin-degrading activity. To address this limitation, a rational design strategy targeting the substrate-binding pocket was employed to enhance its activity. Utilizing site-directed and combinatorial mutagenesis, a double mutant R134F/D217A was successfully screened. R134F/D217A retains catalytic activity towards 3-keto-DON while significantly enhancing its catalytic capacity for T-2. Specifically, the R134F/D217A variant exhibited a 2.88-fold increase in catalytic activity and a 3.15-fold enhancement in catalytic efficiency (k_cat/K_m) relative to the wild type enzyme. Notably, a substantial improvement in thermal stability was also observed. After incubation at 55 °C, the residual activity of the R134F/D217A mutant was 2.63 times that of the wild type. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and three-dimensional structural modeling suggested the mechanistic basis for the enhanced performance of the R134F/D217A double mutant. Catalytic enhancement stems from a shortened nucleophilic attack distance, a positively biased electrostatic environment, combined with an enlarged pocket and reduced binding free energy. Concurrently, the increased thermal stability results from decreased flexibility and a more rigid structural architecture. This work presents the first report of AKR13B3 as an effective enzyme for T-2 toxin transformation, and its catalytic activity was significantly enhanced through rational design. Thus, a novel enzymatic strategy was proposed, and could inform future approaches to study issues related to T-2 toxin contamination. Full article

Microcystins (MCs), a group of potent hepatotoxins from cyanobacterial blooms, threaten global water security due to the resistance to conventional treatment processes and multi-organ toxicity to human. This study innovatively proposed a novel sequential process combining UV irradiation with biodegradation by Sphingopyxis sp. m6 for efficient microcystin-LR (MC-LR) removal. Results revealed that sequential UV-C pretreatment followed by Sphingopyxis sp. m6 biodegradation achieved complete degradation of 1 mg/L of MC-LR within 1 h of the biological phase, drastically reducing the treatment time compared to biodegradation alone (5 h). Mechanistic investigation revealed that low-dose UV-C (50 mJ/cm²) pretreatment induced MC-LR photoisomerization consistently with previously reported Adda geometric isomers. These photoisomers, along with residual parent MC-LR, were subsequently mineralized by Sphingopyxis sp. m6. Enzymatic pathway analysis confirmed a dual-pathway degradation, where Mlr enzymes processed both the native toxin and its isomeric forms, leading to a series of linearized peptides and Adda-derived products. Critically, the process achieved efficient detoxification, as confirmed by the restoration of HepG2 cell proliferation and protein phosphatase 2A activity. Moreover, response surface methodology optimized the key parameters (31.49 °C, pH of 7.36, 0.23 mg/L) for the highest degradation efficiency. This work provides an energy- and cost-efficient strategy for MC-LR remediation and elucidates the molecular mechanism of UV-induced photoisomerization facilitating subsequent biodegradation. Full article

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a widespread estrogenic mycotoxin that poses serious health risks to both humans and animals through the contamination of cereals and feeds. In this study, a novel Bacillus strain X13 was isolated from volcanic rock soil and demonstrated the unique ability to utilize ZEN as the sole carbon source for growth and metabolism. Under optimized conditions (37 °C, pH 8.0, and 5% inoculum in M9 minimal medium), strain X13 achieved a ZEN degradation efficiency of 98.57%. LC-MS analysis identified 1-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-6′-hydroxy-1′-undecen-10′-one as the primary degradation product, indicating enzymatic hydrolysis of the lactone ring. Enzymatic assays revealed that the active components were extracellular, proteinaceous, and metal ion-dependent. Furthermore, the strain reduced ZEN content in mold-contaminated corn flour by 74.6%, effectively lowering toxin levels below regulatory limits. These findings suggest that Bacillus sp. X13 is a promising candidate for the bioremediation of ZEN-contaminated agricultural products, with significant potential for application in food and feed detoxification strategies. The robust degradation performance of strain X13 under simulated environmental conditions, combined with its adaptability to agricultural substrates, positions it as a viable solution for large-scale mycotoxin mitigation in the food industry chain, from pre-harvest field management to post-harvest storage processing. Full article

The Arabian Gulf, bordered by major energy-producing nations, harbors diverse microalgal communities with strong potential for the bioremediation of environmental pollutants, particularly petroleum hydrocarbons. This review evaluates two key microalgal groups—micro-green algae and dinoflagellates—highlighting their distinct physiological traits and ecological roles in pollution mitigation. Dinoflagellates, including Prorocentrum and Protoperidinium, have demonstrated hydrocarbon-degrading abilities but are frequently linked to harmful algal blooms (HABs), marine toxins, and bioluminescence, posing ecological and health risks. The toxins produced by these algae can be hemolytic or neurotoxic and include compounds such as azaspiracids, brevetoxins, ciguatoxins, okadaic acid, saxitoxins, and yessotoxins. In contrast, micro-green algae such as Oedogonium and Pandorina are generally non-toxic, seldom associated with HABs, and typically found in clean freshwater and brackish environments. Some species, like Chlorogonium, indicate pollution tolerance, while Dunaliella has shown promise in remediating contaminated seawater. Both groups exhibit unique enzymatic pathways and metabolic mechanisms for degrading hydrocarbons and remediating heavy metals. Due to their respective phycoremediation capacities and environmental adaptability, these algae offer sustainable, nature-based solutions for pollution control in coastal, estuarine, and inland freshwater systems, particularly in mainland Qatar. This review compares their remediation efficacy, ecological impacts, and practical limitations to support the selection of effective algal candidates for eco-friendly strategies targeting petroleum-contaminated marine environments. Full article

The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a serious global health issue, and it emphasizes the need for novel antimicrobial agents. This review explores the potential of snake venom as another alternative strategy against antimicrobial resistance. Snake venoms are complex combinations of bioactive peptides and proteins, including metalloproteases (MPs), serine proteases (SPs), phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) enzymes, three-finger toxins (3FTXs), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs), and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). The antibacterial products possess wide-spectrum antibacterial activity against resistant microbes via diverse mechanisms such as cell membrane disruption, enzymatic hydrolysis of microbial structures, generation of oxidative stress, inhibition of biofilms, and immunomodulation. Strong antimicrobial activity is reported by most studies, but these are mostly restricted to in vitro testing with low translational use. Although preliminary insights into molecular targets and physiological effects exist, further studies are needed to clarify long-term safety and therapeutic potential. Special attention is given to snake venom-derived extracellular vesicles (SVEVs), which enhance the therapeutic potential of venom toxins by protecting them from degradation, improving bioavailability, and facilitating targeted delivery. Furthermore, innovative delivery strategies such as PEGylation, liposomes, hydrogels, microneedle patches, biopolymer films, and nanoparticles are discussed for their role in reducing systemic toxicity and enhancing antimicrobial efficacy. The rational modification of venom-derived peptides further expands their therapeutic utility by improving pharmacokinetics and minimizing off-target effects. Together, these approaches highlight the translational potential of snake venom-based therapies as next-generation antimicrobials in the fight against resistant infections. By outlining these challenges and directions, this review positions snake venom as an overlooked but fertile resource in the battle against antibiotic resistance. Full article

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) produced by some Aspergillus species belongs to the most dangerous contaminants of animal feeds. Development of safe and cost efficient decontamination methods saving feed quality and nutritional value are of paramount importance. The use of recombinant AFB1-detoxifying microbial enzymes represents a promising biotechnological approach meeting the aforementioned requirements. In this study, three AFB1-degrading oxidases (AFOs) from edible basidiomycetes Cantharellus cibarius, Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus eryngii as well as AFO from Armillaria tabescens were expressed in E. coli Rosetta (DE3) and purified by immobilized metal-chelate chromatography. The stabilizing effect of the addition of glycerol and β-mercaptoethanol during protein extraction is shown. The catalytic constants of the recombinant AFOs (rAFOs) and other characteristics, which might be important for their practical application (and optimal temperature and pH, thermolability, regulation of the activity by metal ions and chelating agents, storage stability) were investigated. Among the obtained enzymes, rAFO from P. eryngii (Pe-AFO), which was characterized by the highest specific activity, thermostability and pH stability (especially at acidic pH range), the lowest K_m, and relative resistance to the inhibition by phytate, showed the best AFB1-degrading efficacy. However, Pe-AFO and all other rAFOs significantly decreased the target activity during heating above 45 °C, storage frozen or lyophilization. Full article

Insects are the most diverse form of life, and as such, they interact closely with humans, impacting our health, economy, and agriculture. Beneficial insect species contribute to pollination, biological control of pests, decomposition, and nutrient cycling. Pest species can cause damage to agricultural crops and vector diseases to humans and livestock. Insects are often exposed to toxic xenobiotics in the environment, both naturally occurring toxins like plant secondary metabolites and synthetic chemicals like herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Because of this, insects have evolved several mechanisms of resistance to toxic xenobiotics, including sequestration, behavioral avoidance, and enzymatic degradation, and in many cases had developed symbiotic relationships with microbes that can aid in this detoxification. As research progresses, the important roles of these microbes in insect health and function have become more apparent. Bacterial symbionts that degrade plant phytotoxins allow host insects to feed on otherwise chemically defended plants. They can also confer pesticide resistance to their hosts, especially in frequently treated agricultural fields. It is important to study these interactions between insects and the toxic chemicals they are exposed to in order to further the understanding of pest insect resistance and to mitigate the negative effect of pesticides on nontarget insect species like Hymenopteran pollinators. Full article

Forage grain contamination with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a global problem, so its detoxification with the aim of providing feed safety and cost-efficiency is still a relevant issue. AFB1 degradation by microbial enzymes is considered to be a promising detoxification approach. In this study, we modified an previously developed Pichia pastoris GS115 expression system using a chimeric signal peptide to obtain a new recombinant producer of extracellular AFB1 oxidase (AFO) from Armillaria tabescens (the yield of 0.3 g/L), purified AFO, and selected optimal conditions for AFO-induced AFB1 removal from model solutions. After a 72 h exposure of the AFB1 solution to AFO at pH 6.0 and 30 °C, 80% of the AFB1 was degraded. Treatments with AFO also significantly reduced the AFB1 content in wheat and corn grain inoculated with Aspergillus flavus. In grain samples contaminated with several dozen micrograms of AFB1 per kg, a 48 h exposure to AFO resulted in at least double the reduction in grain contamination compared to the control, while the same treatment of more significantly (~mg/kg) AFB1-polluted samples reduced their contamination by ~40%. These findings prove the potential of the tested AFO for cereal grain decontamination and suggest that additional studies to stabilize AFO and improve its AFB1-degrading efficacy are required. Full article

Anthrax toxin is a critical virulence factor of Bacillus anthracis. The toxin comprises protective antigen (PA) and two enzymatic moieties, edema factor (EF) and lethal factor (LF), forming bipartite lethal toxin (LT) and edema toxin (ET). PA binds cellular surface receptors and is required for intracellular translocation of the enzymatic moieties. For this reason, anti-PA antibodies have been developed as therapeutics for prophylaxis and treatment of human anthrax infection. Assays described publicly for the control of anti-PA antibody potency quantify inhibition of LT-mediated cell death or the ET-induced increase in c-AMP levels. These assays do not fully reflect and/or capture the pathological functions of anthrax toxin in humans. Herein, we report the development of a cell-based gene reporter potency assay for anti-PA antibodies based on the rapid LT-induced degradation of c-Jun protein, a pathogenic effect that occurs in human cells. This new assay was developed by transducing Hepa1c1c7 cells with an AP-1 reporter lentiviral construct and has been qualified for specificity, accuracy, repeatability, intermediate precision, and linearity. This assay not only serves as a bioassay for LT activity, but has applications for characterization and quality control of anti-PA therapeutic antibodies or other products that target the AP-1 signaling pathway. Full article

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered one of the main mycotoxins responsible for health problems and considerable economic losses in the feed industry. The aim was to study OTA’s detoxifying potential of commercial protease enzymes: (i) Ananas comosus bromelain cysteine-protease, (ii) bovine trypsin serine-protease and (iii) Bacillus subtilis neutral metalloendopeptidase. In silico studies were performed with reference ligands and T-2 toxin as control, and in vitro experiments. In silico study results showed that tested toxins interacted near the catalytic triad, similar to how the reference ligands behave in all tested proteases. Likewise, based on the proximity of the amino acids in the most stable poses, the chemical reaction mechanisms for the transformation of OTA were proposed. In vitro experiments showed that while bromelain reduced OTA’s concentration in 7.64% at pH 4.6; trypsin at 10.69% and the neutral metalloendopeptidase in 8.2%, 14.44%, 45.26% at pH 4.6, 5 and 7, respectively (p < 0.05). The less harmful α-ochratoxin was confirmed with trypsin and the metalloendopeptidase. This study is the first attempt to demonstrate that: (i) bromelain and trypsin can hydrolyse OTA in acidic pH conditions with low efficiency and (ii) the metalloendopeptidase was an effective OTA bio-detoxifier. This study confirmed α-ochratoxin as a final product of the enzymatic reactions in real-time practical information on OTA degradation rate, since in vitro experiments simulated the time that food spends in poultry intestines, as well as their natural pH and temperature conditions. Full article