Search Results (3,291)

This work presents a numerical investigation of an asymmetric Pt/HfSiON/Ti metal–insulator–metal (MIM) tunnel diode for long-wave infrared (LWIR) rectenna applications at 28.3 THz (10.6 μm). HfSiON is investigated as the tunneling dielectric owing to its favorable electronic properties, thermal stability, and compatibility with nanoscale device fabrication. The electrical transport and rectification characteristics are evaluated using the full Simmons quantum-mechanical tunneling model implemented in MATLAB release 2025b. The analysis encompasses the current density–voltage (J–V) and current–voltage (I–V) characteristics, zero-bias dynamic resistance, current asymmetry, nonlinearity, responsivity, and temperature dependence. Under AC excitation, the Pt/HfSiON/Ti diode exhibits a calculated rectified current density of 1.78 × 10² A/cm² at zero DC bias, while a current density of 6.32 × 10⁵ A/cm² is obtained at an applied voltage amplitude of ±0.5 V. The asymmetric electrode configuration, arising from the difference in the work functions of Pt and Ti, results in a calculated asymmetry of 2.5 × 10⁴. At zero DC bias, the diode exhibits a zero-bias dynamic resistance of 3.85 × 10⁵ Ω and a zero-bias responsivity of approximately 10 V⁻¹. The calculated rectification characteristics show only weak sensitivity to temperature over the investigated range, indicating that the transport response is predominantly governed by quantum-mechanical tunneling rather than thermally activated processes. These results demonstrate the potential of HfSiON as a tunneling dielectric for nanoscale MIM rectifiers and indicate that the asymmetric Pt/HfSiON/Ti architecture provides strong nonlinear rectification and favorable zero-bias response for LWIR rectenna and energy-harvesting applications. Full article

Stable electrical contacts must maintain mechanical integrity and low electrical resistance under fretting conditions, but the influence of deposition-induced residual stress on coated rough interfaces remains unclear. In this paper, 2.8 μm AgNi coatings containing 1–8 at.% Ni were deposited by magnetron sputtering. Their microstructure, mechanical properties, residual stress, resistivity, and coupled force–resistance responses were examined over 20 displacement-controlled radial-fretting cycles to resolve the early-cycle evolution from initial asperity accommodation to electromechanical stabilization. A residual-stress-aware multiasperity model was developed to interpret the stabilized high- and low-load electrical responses by coupling elastic–plastic asperity contact with finite-thickness constriction resistance and conducting-spot interactions. Increasing Ni content increased the magnitude of the compressive residual stress from 35.3 to 312.3 MPa. The stabilized R_min increased from 0.464 ± 0.028 to 0.575 ± 0.029 mΩ, whereas R_max decreased from 3.064 ± 0.151 to 1.797 ± 0.083 mΩ across the composition series. The cycle-resolved histories showed that R_min was weakly cycle-dependent, whereas R_max increased markedly in the low-Ni coatings as the return-point preload progressively relaxed. At the stabilized cycle, the multiasperity model reproduced the contrasting composition-dependent resistance trends at the high- and low-load endpoints. A paired sensitivity analysis showed that residual stress had a minor influence on R_min but reduced R_max by up to 20.3% by suppressing accumulated plastic settlement and preserving the return-point conducting network. These results reveal a mechanical–electrical design trade-off in which Ni enrichment increases high-load resistance but is associated with improved preload retention and early cycle-to-cycle electrical stability. Full article

The effect of lithium sulfate (LS) admixture on the performance of ferroaluminate cement (FAC) remains poorly understood, and no systematic investigation of the regulatory effects of LS hydration in FAC systems has been conducted. By revealing how LS modulates the macroscopic properties and hydration progression of FAC, this work addresses an important knowledge deficit in the existing literature. This study investigated the performance evolution of FAC pastes with varying amounts of LS addition. It examined the setting time, fluidity, compressive strength, pH and electrical conductivity of the pore solution, as well as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electrical resistivity. The findings indicate that LS significantly accelerates the early hydration rate of FAC, shortening setting time and reducing paste fluidity as its content increases. Notably, LS inhibits compressive strength development at 12 h, yet it enhances the rate of strength development after 1 day. The analysis of electrical conductivity and pH demonstrated that LS increases ion concentration and alkalinity within the first day, and these parameters stabilize after 28 days. Resistivity measurements indicate that LS raises paste resistivity within 3 h and enhances the peak hydration rate. Quantitative XRD demonstrates that LS induces complex lithium–sulfate coupling effects on ettringite (AFt): LS20 hits the critical Li⁺ inhibition threshold, while the sulfate from the higher LS dosage mitigates such negative influences. These findings establish a theoretical foundation for the targeted application of LS in materials based on FAC. Full article

The rapid advancement of information technology and pervasive use of electronic devices has exacerbated electromagnetic radiation pollution and interference, driving the demand for lightweight, flexible, and high-efficiency electromagnetic shielding materials in materials research. As a high-performance elastomer, thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) possesses excellent elasticity, wear resistance, oil resistance and processability, making it promising for flexible electronics and wearable devices. However, pure TPU is electrically insulating and exhibits nearly no electromagnetic shielding capability, which requires conductive filler incorporation for functional modification. Herein, ternary TPU/MWCNT/BiFeO₃ composites were fabricated via solution blending and hot pressing, using multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and bismuth ferrite (BiFeO₃) as conductive and dielectric fillers within the TPU matrix. The effects of filler content on the microstructure, thermal stability, mechanical properties and electromagnetic shielding performance of composites, together with the relevant mechanisms, were systematically studied. For the ternary TPU/MWCNT/BiFeO₃ system, the introduction of BiFeO₃ continuously increases the char residue rate of the composites to 16.01%, while accelerating the reaction process during the main thermal decomposition stage. The mechanical properties gradually deteriorate with the increase in BiFeO₃ content, and the composite with 5 wt% BiFeO₃ almost loses its elastomeric characteristics. The electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (SE) presents a trend of initial increase and subsequent decrease. The composite with 3 wt% BiFeO₃ exhibits the optimal shielding performance, with a 24.7% enhancement in total SE compared with the reference TPU/MWCNT composite containing 1% MWCNT. This improvement is attributed to the interfacial polarization and dipole polarization induced by the appropriate amount of BiFeO₃, which effectively strengthen the electromagnetic wave absorption loss capacity of the composites. Full article

Waste-to-hydrogen technology requires the involvement of new material development and performance evaluation for additive manufacturing (AM). Metal 3D printing is a very good possible alternative and is delivering results visible in the circular-economy environment. By using the AM technique, complex operations are avoided when combining the individual components, which is a typical disadvantage in obtaining composite materials; such samples are prepared with only one operation from the starting melt, which is chemically defined. Pyrolysis rotary kiln sealing rings are to be upgraded with several different microstructure coatings in order to improve the surface performance. The surface topology is aimed to be fine, dense and smooth. Also, the target characteristics are a low friction coefficient and a high hardness value, suggesting enhanced wear resistance. For elevated temperatures, 900 °C is selected for cobalt-based superalloy Stellite types with particle reinforcement. Two possibilities for advanced materials production are proposed with the Directed Energy Deposition Plasma Arc (DED-arc) and Laser Directed Energy Deposition (DED-LB). The shell of the rotary kiln sealing ring is made of stainless steel as the base, with the coating overlaid. Selected mixtures in powder form with defined composition are applied. For the DED-arc, commercially available Stellite 6 (Deloro Stellite^® 6) and 20 vol% WC particles with a grain size of 63–150 µm were employed. For the DED-LB, we employed TRIBALOY^® T-800 (Kennametal Stellite^TM) with 25 vol% TiC and a mesh size of −100/+325 (particle diameter between 45 and 150 µm). After the representative samples were metallurgically bonded with the base stainless steel, the relevant properties were obtained. Manufactured samples are compared in terms of microstructures and mechanical properties. Analysis of structure: Intermetallic carbides that formed on the cobalt basis make the composite harder and increase the plasticity in a defined direction. The hypoeutectic structures of Stellite 6 + 20% WC consist of dendrite and interdendrite eutectic. It is observed that with an increase in WC volume fraction, the size of the dendrites becomes finer, and the amount of eutectic structure is increased. For the TRIBALOY^® T-800 with TiC, we obtained relatively smaller grain sizes. The roughness values for the tested samples with WC were initially Ra = 0.8 µm, increasing up to Ra = 3.44 µm after the wear test, whereas for the TiC, they were slightly lower. Microhardness testing revealed increased values compared to the base stainless steels. Advanced sensor analysis with acoustic emission (AE) and electrical contact resistance (ECR) also showed the properties of the new materials. Customizable coatings with tailored properties were deposited by DED-arc and DED-LB. From the tests performed, a new technological procedure for the production of novel pyrolysis rotary kiln sealing rings is proposed. The microhardness, roughness, microstructure and abrasive wear-resistant response of the metallic composite material were examined in order to characterize the stable multiphase system. Full article

A bidirectional DC–DC converter is the part that lets an electric vehicle both draw a fast charge and push power back during vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operation, so its control decides how well the DC link holds up when the load jumps or the power reverses. This paper sets out a full switching-level model of a synchronous half-bridge converter that sits between a 400 V battery pack and a 750 V DC link at 50 kW, and it controls that converter with a two-loop sliding-mode scheme: an inner sliding-mode current loop with a boundary layer to limit chatter and an outer loop that holds the link voltage. The controller is written out term by term and compared against a conventional PI cascade on the same plant. Under a 40 to 100 percent load step, the sliding-mode controller settles the link in 0.71 ms with a 2.42 percent dip, against 1.75 ms and 4.20 percent for the PI cascade, and its response barely changes when the inductor is 40 percent larger and its resistance is 50 percent higher than the controller assumes, which is the invariance property sliding-mode control is meant to give. Power reverses from full discharge to full charge in 0.255 ms, about four and a half times faster than the same PI cascade taken through the reversal. A converter loss model, with conduction evaluated per switch from the RMS current, puts peak efficiency at 98.69 percent near 23 kW and 98.39 percent at the rated 50 kW. The converter is then driven by a real-world charging-demand profile taken from 41,213 charging sessions recorded at the Newcastle Helix site, and it holds the DC link within 9.12 V across the day. Every figure comes from the accompanying code and can be regenerated. Full article

Metal–Insulator–Metal (MIM) tunneling diodes are among the most promising rectifying devices for long-wave infrared (LWIR) rectenna systems due to their ultrafast response and zero-bias operation. However, their performance is strongly dependent on the choice of electrode and dielectric materials, making the identification of optimal material combinations a key challenge. To address this issue, this theoretical study presents a numerical investigation of a new class of MIM diodes based on a quantum-mechanical tunneling framework. Novel combinations of transition-metal dichalcogenides (NbS₂, VSe₂, and TaS₂) as anode materials (M1), conductive carbides and nitrides (Mo₂C, VN, and V) as cathode materials (M2), and rare-earth oxide and oxyhalide compounds (Sc₂O₃, LaOF, and LaOBr) as tunnel barriers (I) were selected through an extensive literature survey. These materials were combined to design previously unexplored MIM architectures for LWIR rectification. The electrical transport and rectification properties were evaluated using the Simmons tunneling model by calculating the current density–voltage (J–V) and current–voltage (I–V) characteristics, together with key figures of merit (FOMs), including zero-bias resistance, asymmetry factor, nonlinearity, and responsivity, at room temperature (300 K). The effects of tunnel barrier height and dielectric properties on device performance were systematically investigated. Among all the investigated architectures, the TaS₂/LaOBr/V MIM diode exhibited the most promising overall performance, achieving an asymmetry factor exceeding 2.5 × 10⁵, a nonlinearity factor of 1, and a zero-bias responsivity of 10 V⁻¹ at 300 K. Furthermore, this structure demonstrated the highest current density and the most favorable I–V characteristics among the proposed material combinations. These results identify the TaS₂/LaOBr/V material system as a promising candidate for high-performance LWIR energy harvesting applications, owing to its optimized tunnel barrier height, which promotes efficient electron tunneling while maintaining excellent rectification properties. Full article

Continuous monitoring of permafrost dynamics remains challenging in remote high-mountain environments due to logistical constraints, harsh climatic conditions, and the limited availability of spatially distributed observations. In addition to direct temperature observations in boreholes, Autonomous Electrical Resistivity Tomography (A-ERT) offers significant potential for long-term monitoring by providing high temporal resolution observations of subsurface electrical properties, which are highly sensitive to freeze/thaw processes. This study presents the field validation of a low-power A-ERT system designed for long-term autonomous operation in extreme environments. The system was deployed at a high-altitude permafrost site near the Kumtor gold mine in the Central Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan, representing the first application of continuous A-ERT monitoring in the Central Asian mountain ranges. The system operated continuously under harsh environmental conditions with air temperatures as low as −30 °C. Data quality remained consistently high throughout the monitoring period, with less than 1% of measurements removed during filtering, and inversion results with root-mean-square errors generally ranging between 3% and 4%. Time-lapse resistivity observations revealed strong seasonal freeze–thaw dynamics within the active layer and continued seasonal resistivity variations within the underlying permafrost despite permanently frozen conditions. Analysis of depth-dependent resistivity–temperature relationships revealed increasingly pronounced hysteresis behavior below the active layer, indicating that subsurface electrical properties were not controlled solely by temperature. This behavior likely reflects variations in unfrozen water content and pore connectivity within the fine-grained permafrost, where liquid water can persist at sub-zero temperatures. The results demonstrate the capability of the A-ERT system for reliable long-term autonomous monitoring in remote permafrost environments and investigation of coupled thermal and hydrological processes in permafrost systems. Full article

Resistance training (RT) may alter tissue electrical properties, but whether proximity to momentary muscular failure influences longitudinal bioelectrical responses remains unclear. This study compared eight weeks of unilateral RT performed to failure (FAIL) or with repetitions in reserve (RIR) on segmental phase angle (PhA), resistance (R), and reactance (Xc). Nineteen resistance-trained adults (11 men: age 20.4 ± 1.8 years, height 172.7 ± 5.6 cm, body mass 74.9 ± 7.6 kg; 8 women: 24.8 ± 4.7 years, 164.1 ± 8.0 cm, 63.0 ± 10.1 kg) completed twice-weekly unilateral preacher curl and leg extension training, with contralateral limbs randomized to FAIL or RIR. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, week 4, and week 8 using Bayesian Gaussian mixed-effects models, with sex-specific interaction analyses treated as exploratory. Week-8 FAIL-RIR PhA contrasts were −0.079 (95% CrI: −0.440 to 0.286) and −0.065 (−0.390 to 0.256) in women’s and men’s arms, and −0.014 (−0.329 to 0.298) and 0.011 (−0.284 to 0.302) in their legs. With female as the reference category, week-8 protocol × time estimates for R were 0.922 (95% CrI: −23.693 to 25.946) in the arm and −4.106 (−17.415 to 9.360) in the leg; corresponding Xc estimates were 0.191 (−2.301 to 2.643) and −0.762 (−2.506 to 0.958), respectively. These findings are limited to segmental limb-level bioelectrical estimates and should not be interpreted as localized responses of the specifically trained muscles. Full article

Al₂O₃ and SiO₂ nanofillers have been widely used to improve the insulation performance of cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) for high-voltage power cables. In this work, XLPE nanocomposites containing 3 wt.% Al₂O₃ or SiO₂ were prepared to compare the effects of the two nanofillers on the thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties of XLPE. Hydrophobic surface treatment was applied to improve nanofiller compatibility with the polymer matrix. Differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis were used to evaluate crystallinity and thermal stability. Tensile and creep tests were performed to assess mechanical behaviour, while volume resistivity, dielectric constant, and breakdown strength under AC, DC, and DC polarity-reversal fields were measured at 30 °C and 90 °C. The results showed that Al₂O₃-filled XLPE had higher crystallinity and a higher initial decomposition temperature than SiO₂-filled XLPE, together with lower creep elongation, indicating better thermal and dimensional stability. In contrast, SiO₂-filled XLPE exhibited higher elongation at break, a lower power-frequency dielectric constant, and improved breakdown strength. Hydrophobic surface treatment increased volume resistivity and breakdown strength and reduced data dispersion for both nanocomposites, suggesting that improved interfacial compatibility and more homogeneous microstructures contributed to performance enhancement. Overall, Al₂O₃ mainly improved thermal endurance and creep resistance, whereas SiO₂ was more effective in enhancing dielectric and mechanical properties. These findings provide guidance for selecting nanofillers for XLPE nanocomposite insulation in high-voltage cable applications. Full article

Carbon cloth is a lightweight and mechanically robust fibrous substrate with strong potential for value-added flexible electronic applications. In this study, carbon cloth/polypyrrole (CC/PPy) composites were fabricated via vapor-phase polymerization (VPP) and evaluated as radiating electrodes for flexible monopole patch RF antennas. By varying the polymerization time, the surface resistance and complex permittivity of the CC/PPy composites were systematically tuned, enabling simultaneous optimization of electrical conductivity and dielectric response. Among the prepared samples, the composite polymerized for 20 s exhibited the most balanced properties, with a sheet resistance of 1.86 Ω/sq, a real permittivity (ε′) of 5.78, and an imaginary permittivity (ε″) of 0.23. When applied as the antenna electrode, this material delivered a return loss of −34.81 dB, a radiation efficiency of 84.32%, a peak gain of 3.30 dBi, and a peak directivity of 3.91 dBi at 1.74 GHz. In addition, the antenna maintained stable performance after 5000 bending cycles, demonstrating excellent mechanical durability. These results show that simultaneous control of surface resistance and dielectric properties is critical for high-performance flexible RF electrodes and provide a practical surface-functionalization strategy for upgrading carbon-cloth-based fibrous materials into value-added electronic products. Full article

Hydrogen is employed as a therapeutic gas in the treatment of stroke, tissue repair, and cancer, owing to its excellent biocompatibility, antioxidant properties, anti-inflammatory effects, and regulation of cellular metabolism. Moreover, nanometallic materials generate hydrogen through pH-responsive, light-responsive, ultrasound-responsive, and electrical stimulation and play a pivotal role in cancer therapy by activating anti-tumor immune responses, reversing immunosuppressive microenvironments, inducing immunogenic cell death, and sensitising radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Consequently, hydrogen therapy based on nanometallic materials has emerged as a novel research focus in cancer treatment. This review systematically elucidates the unique anti-cancer immunobiological effects of hydrogen therapy based on novel nanometallic materials. It meticulously analyses the reversal effects of different metals (Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Yb, etc.) in overcoming obstacles within the cancer immune cycle (including antigen presentation, T-cell activation, and resistance mechanisms). It highlights the structure–activity relationships between ‘metal type-specific activity-immune effects’ in the latest hydrogen therapies, elucidates the primary signaling pathways involved in hydrogen-mediated immune regulation, and systematically summarises breakthrough advances in how hydrogen therapy modulates immune responses against tumors. Building upon current cancer treatment trends, this review will synthesise key factors from clinical translation and immunological research perspectives to propose future directions for the field, addressing prevailing challenges. Full article

The design of efficient small-scale hydrogen energy storage systems requires balancing hydrogen production rate, electrical efficiency, and system simplicity. This study experimentally investigates the energetic compromise imposed by separator material and electrolyzer architecture through a comparative analysis of finite-gap alkaline, finite-gap acidic, and zero-gap proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers. Zirfon^® Pearl 500 (Agfa, Mortsel, Belgium) diaphragms were employed in alkaline electrolysis using 25 wt.% KOH, whereas Nafion™ 117 (Chemours, Wilmington, DE, USA) membranes were used in both finite-gap acidic electrolysis (2.55 M H₂SO₄) and a commercial five-cell zero-gap PEM electrolyzer supplied with deionized water. Electrochemical performance was evaluated in terms of polarization behavior, apparent resistance, hydrogen production rate, Faradaic efficiency, and energy conversion efficiency. The zero-gap PEM architecture exhibited the best electrochemical performance, with an apparent resistance of only 0.138 Ω per cell, corresponding to reductions of approximately 43-, 51-, and 64-fold compared with the finite-gap PEM, stainless steel/Zirfon alkaline, and nickel/Zirfon alkaline configurations, respectively. The zero-gap electrolyzer delivered currents from 1.53 to 10.0 A while operating below 2.8 V, demonstrating the benefit of minimizing the ionic transport path. In contrast, the finite-gap acidic configuration achieved higher hydrogen production rates than the alkaline system owing to the superior proton conductivity of Nafion™ 117, whereas the alkaline Ni/Zirfon configuration reached the highest Faradaic efficiency (≈98%) and energy conversion efficiency (≈36%) because of improved gas separation and reduced hydrogen crossover. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy further revealed that the normalized ohmic resistance of the zero-gap PEM cell was only 0.029 Ω, with charge-transfer processes accounting for approximately 96.2% of the total impedance. These results demonstrate that separator properties and cell architecture govern the trade-off between reaction kinetics and energy efficiency, providing practical guidelines for selecting electrolyzer configurations dedicated to decentralized and small-scale hydrogen energy storage. Full article

Conventional carbon-black-based low-resistance anti-corona coatings can exhibit electrical properties that are sensitive to filler dispersion, particle spacing, interfacial conditions, and temperature-induced structural rearrangement. In this study, nano antimony-doped tin oxide (ATO) was surface-modified with γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (KH550) and used to partially replace carbon black in an E-51 epoxy matrix. The total hybrid-filler loading was fixed at 10 wt% relative to the mass of E-51 epoxy resin, while the ATO/carbon black mass ratio was varied from 0:10 to 10:0. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to examine the introduction of KH550-derived organosilane species onto ATO, and the coating formulations were screened by measuring surface resistance and corona inception voltage (CIV) under a needle–plate electrode configuration. The selected A3C7 coating was further compared with a commercial carbon-black-based low-resistance anti-corona coating through scanning electron microscopy and thermal cycling between 25 and 150 °C. A3C7 exhibited a surface resistance of (1.17 ± 0.07) × 10⁴ Ω and the highest CIV of 2.58 ± 0.04 kV, representing a 40.1% increase relative to the carbon-black-only A0C10 coating. Relatively uniform circular or elliptical micron-scale features were observed on the A3C7 surface; however, their chemical origin could not be determined by conventional SEM. After 50 thermal cycles, the relative resistance change in A3C7 was 12.62% ± 1.19%, markedly lower than the 63.95% ± 6.76% obtained for the commercial coating. The corresponding CIV retentions were 91.86% and 82.40%, respectively. These results demonstrate that partial replacement of carbon black with KH550-modified ATO can provide a favorable balance among low surface resistance, increased CIV, and improved thermal-cycling electrical stability. The microscopic origin of this behavior remains to be clarified by direct characterization of filler distribution and conductive pathways. Full article

Introduction: In modern vehicles, new enhancements are being sought for engine components, break disks, and valves, using light-weight materials which are applicable not only in conventional cars but also in electric vehicles. The utilization of novel additive manufacturing aims to reduce energy loss and mechanical stress, improving component longevity at a lower cost. Method: The effective hardfacing of silicon carbide (SiC) over stainless steel was achieved using a Rofin Sinar Nd:YAG 2 kW robotized laser system with powder feedstock. Different Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) were manufactured using Laser Directed Energy Deposition (DED-LB), making it possible to additively manufacture near-net-shaped parts while having the freedom to obtain variable geometries for the surface layout. Samples were prepared from the following flat products of EN 10088: X2CrTi12(1.4512, AISI 409), X15CrNi25-20 (1.4840, AISI 310), X5CrNi18-10 (1.4301, AISI 304), and X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 (1.4547, UNS: S31254). The reinforcement comprised a fine carbide powder of SiC, and the MMCs were produced after the solidification of the molten mixture. The study included an assessment of the interface zones and measurement of their microhardness, as well as microstructural analysis with visual defect evaluation focused on porosity and microcracking detection. Results: In order to increase durability and heat and wear resistance, advanced MMC sample components for various vehicles applications were explored. In one layer with a thickness of 1.5 mm, composed of X1NiCrMoCuN20-18-7 and SiC, the hardness characteristic was observed to be about 25 MPA higher than that experimentally obtained for the base material. For the same MMC, the carbide–metal interface zones were investigated. No cracks were observed, and it displayed a porosity of ≈1.57%. DED-LB MMCs possess excellent thermal stability and resistance to abrasion. Conclusion: Laser application allows various geometric applications on the surfaces of car parts. The appropriate selection of component phases can enable the design of parts with specific functionality, where the interaction between the microstructure and properties is complex. Full article