Search Results (33)

Hydraulic failure in levees, river embankments, and earth dams represents a critical challenge in flood risk management, particularly under increasing climate-induced hydrological stresses. This study presents a systematic literature review of numerical, probabilistic, and data-driven modeling approaches used to assess hydraulic failure mechanisms in earthen flood-protection structures. A structured search was conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, and Taylor & Francis for peer-reviewed English-language journal articles published between 2015 and 2026. Following duplicate removal, title and abstract screening, and full-text eligibility assessment, 65 studies were included in the final synthesis. Based on the synthesis, an integrated mechanism–model–uncertainty framework is developed to relate hydraulic loading conditions, soil response, dominant failure mechanisms, appropriate numerical modeling approaches, uncertainty treatment, and climate-related stressors. This study provides valuable insights for engineers, researchers, and policymakers by identifying key advances, limitations, and future research directions for improving levee resilience. Study quality was assessed using a structured quality assessment rubric. The review protocol was not registered in a public registry, and no external funding was received. Full article

The assessment of flood defense structures is essential for community resilience and disaster prevention. Within these structures, the potential for erosion and piping mechanisms poses critical risks, often leading to severe infrastructure damage. Breach initiation and growth are the main causes of dam and levee failure, which is directly affected by the phreatic line. This study introduces a natural element method (NEM) formulation with Sibson interpolation specifically tailored to directly estimate the phreatic line in homogeneous earthen embankments, avoiding conventional mesh generation and reducing preprocessing effort. The main innovation is the combination of a mesh-free NEM scheme with an iterative free-surface update dedicated to phreatic line tracking, rather than full embankment flow field simulation. Comparative analyses and validation against existing data emphasize the method’s strength. Validation against piezometric data from a railway embankment in Cumbria (UK) and the IJkdijk full-scale test levee (Netherlands) shows average relative errors below 2% and maximum errors under 10%, demonstrating that the proposed NEM approach can reproduce observed phreatic levels with high accuracy using relatively few nodes. These results indicate that the method provides an accurate and practically attractive tool for phreatic line assessment in flood defense structures, suitable for integration into levee and embankment safety evaluations. Full article

This study evaluates, through a comparative statistical analysis, the predictive performance of empirical equations for estimating peak discharge during earthen pond failures, using a curated dataset of 78 reliable historical failure cases covering the documented period of available records, selected from an initial international database of 1893 cases. The analysis focuses on reservoirs with storage volumes below 6 hm³, a range that remains insufficiently addressed by existing breach-outflow models despite its importance for hydraulic, mining, and agricultural infrastructures. The procedure established a key comparative evaluation between equations to define the fit volume intervals. The results indicate that predictive uncertainty and error dispersion increase significantly as reservoir volume decreases, with a critical high-variability interval identified between 3.5 and 6 hm³ for both overtopping and piping failure mechanisms. A key finding is that predictive performance is strongly dependent on stored volume segmentation, as no single empirical formulation dominates the entire volume range; instead, 10 of 63 different equations achieve optimal accuracy within 5 specific storage intervals considering the RMSE, MAD and MAE error values. These findings emphasize the necessity of volume-dependent equation selection, based on comparative performance evaluation, and the development of specialized predictive models for small earthen reservoirs to ensure reliable risk assessment. Full article

This study examines the erosion potential of earthen spillways under the growing risks posed by changing climate and extreme flood events, which threaten the stability and safety of dam infrastructure. Specifically, it employs a machine learning approach to evaluate how readily available spillway width and stream power can predict erosion potential. Site-specific erosion prediction methods are often costly and time-consuming because they rely on extensive field investigations and physical modeling. To address these challenges, this research employs multiple machine learning algorithms, including logistic regression, Support Vector Machine, and Random Forest, on existing data to classify spillways as erodible or non-erodible cases. The Random Forest model demonstrated the best predictive performance, achieving 82.7% accuracy on the test dataset. To further interpret the reliability of model predictions, a Bayesian probability analysis was performed, revealing that when the model predicts erosion, there is a 59% probability that the dam will actually experience erosion. These results highlight how integrating existing datasets with machine learning and probabilistic reasoning can enhance dam safety assessment by considering the accuracy, efficiency, and reliability of spillway erosion predictions. Full article

Suffusion is a primary cause of failure in hydraulic structures, including earth dams; however, the mechanisms underlying suffusion-induced failure and the stability changes remain poorly understood. This study derives and implements a sequentially coupled computational model that considers the effect of seepage–suffusion–stress, aimed at simulating the entire process of suffusion-induced failure in earth dams and evaluating their stability. The accuracy of the proposed approach is validated through comparisons with one-dimensional consolidation theory, suffusion experiments, and triaxial tests on eroded soil. A model of the earth dam at high water levels is developed to simulate the full process of suffusion-induced failure and assess its stability. The results indicate that, under the influence of suffusion, fines are lost most rapidly at the dam toe, followed by the region near the upstream water level. In the later stages of suffusion, the soil near the slip surface undergoes excessive compression, leading to an increase in fine content rather than a decrease. The mechanism of suffusion-induced failure in earth dams involves severe fines loss at the dam toe and near the upstream water level, which leads to significant soil weakening and the formation of a continuous plastic zone extending from the dam toe to the upstream water level. The safety factor of the earth dam, when suffusion effects are not considered, remains nearly constant, making it challenging to accurately assess its stability. The safety factor of the earth dam remains nearly constant when suffusion is neglected, indicating that overlooking suffusion presents substantial safety risks. Furthermore, reducing the permeability coefficient of the earth dam can effectively mitigate suffusion. Full article

According to statistics, between 1954 and 2021, China experienced 3558 dam failures in reservoirs, with flood overtopping accounting for 51.04% of these incidents. Once an earth-rock dam fails, it not only directly threatens the lives and property of surrounding residents and disrupts normal living order, but also damages infrastructure such as farmland, transportation, and power systems, resulting in enormous economic losses. To investigate the mechanisms of overtopping failure and breach evolution in homogeneous earthen embankments during flood seasons, this study conducted seven sets of laboratory model tests with the Changkai Embankment in Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province, as a prototype. The tests considered various operational conditions, including different crest widths, embankment heights, channel water depths, and river flow velocities. The test results are as follows: Overtopping failure of earth embankments can be categorised into three distinct stages. The breach formation process can be categorised into three stages: vertical erosion (stage I), breach expansion (stage II) and breach stabilisation (stage III). River water levels and inflow rates were identified as pivotal factors influencing the final morphology of the breach and the flow velocity within it. Conversely, the height of the dike was found to have little influence on the shape of the breach and the flow velocity. The breach width ranges from 6 cm to 12 cm. An increase in water depth, corresponding to a greater difference in water levels on both sides of the river, has been observed to result in a deeper breach and faster widening rate. Elevated water levels have been shown to increase the potential energy of the water, which is subsequently converted into greater kinetic energy during breach formation. This, in turn, increases the flow velocity at the breach. However, a negative correlation has been observed between inflow velocity and flow at the breach. This paper combines the material properties of the embankment to discuss the overtopping failure mechanism and the breach evolution law of homogeneous earth embankments. This provides a basis for preventing and controlling embankment failure disasters. Full article

Plastic Concrete is a low-strength ($f_{cm,28\mathrm{d}}$ ≤ 1.0 MPa), low-stiffness impervious concrete used for cut-off walls in earthen dams worldwide. These properties are achieved through a very high w/c ratio (w/c ≥ 3.0) and water-binding additions (e.g., bentonite). To date, the effect of mix design, especially w/c ratio, as well as bentonite content and type, on the long-term time development of the microstructural properties and corresponding compressive strength of Plastic Concrete has yet to be systematically studied. Furthermore, in the literature, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD) have yet to be applied systematically to Plastic Concrete for this purpose. The present study closes this gap. Ten Plastic Concrete mixes with two bentonite–cement ratios, three types of sodium bentonite and two swelling times were produced. MIP and XRD measurements and compressive strength tests were performed at sample ages of 7 d, 28 d, 56 d, 91 d and four years. The results show that both MIP and XRD can be successfully used; however, meticulous sample preparation and data analysis must be considered. The porosimetry results show a bi-modal pore size distribution, with two age-dependent peaks at approximately 10,000–20,000 nm and 100–700 nm. The results also exhibit a clear pore refinement over time, with coarse porosity dropping from 26% to 15% over four years. In addition, the fine porosity peak is significantly refined over time and positively correlates with the significant increase in compressive strength. The XRD results show no unexpected crystalline phases over the same period. Overall, this study links MIP and corresponding compressive strength data specifically for Plastic Concrete for the first time, confirming the key role that the mix design of Plastic Concrete plays in defining its long-term microstructural and mechanical properties and ensuring more realistic cut-off wall design in the future. In addition, the experimental boundaries for MIP testing on Plastic Concrete are set out for the first time, enabling future research in this field. Full article

This article deals with the issue of diagnostics of the physical condition of earthen dams, taking into account seasonal changes in the water level of hydraulic structures using electrical exploration methods. The simplicity of the method, the accuracy of measurements of geophysical parameters, and the availability of software packages for the processing, interpretation, and visualization were the basis for the choice of method. The method of electrical resistivity and self-potential was chosen. The methodology, technique, technology of field surveys, processing, and geological interpretation of the study results are given. A comparative analysis of the obtained geophysical parameters of seasonal measurements is given. The research results are given in the form of sections of the resistivity model and self-potential isolines. Full article

Since ancient times, dams have been built to store water, control rivers, and irrigate agricultural land to meet human needs. By the end of the 19th century, hydroelectric power stations arose and extended the purposes of dams. Today, dams can be seen as part of the renewable energy supply infrastructure. The word dam comes from French and is defined in dictionaries using words like strange, dike, and obstacle. In other words, a dam is a structure that stores water and directs it to the desired location, with a dam being built in front of river valleys. Dams built on rivers serve various purposes such as the supply of drinking water, agricultural irrigation, flood control, the supply of industrial water, power generation, recreation, the movement control of solids, and fisheries. Dams can also be built in a catchment area to capture and store the rainwater in arid and semi-arid areas. Dams can be built from concrete or natural materials such as earth and rock. There are various types of dams: embankment dams (earth-fill dams, rock-fill dams, and rock-fill dams with concrete faces) and rigid dams (gravity dams, rolled compacted concrete dams, arch dams, and buttress dams). A gravity dam is a straight wall of stone masonry or earthen material that can withstand the full force of the water pressure. In other words, the pressure of the water transfers the vertical compressive forces and horizontal shear forces to the foundations beneath the dam. The strength of a gravity dam ultimately depends on its weight and the strength of its foundations. Most dams built in ancient times were constructed as gravity dams. An arch dam, on the other hand, has a convex curved surface that faces the water. The forces generated by the water pressure are transferred to the sides of the structure by horizontal lines. The horizontal, normal, and shear forces resist the weight at the edges. When viewed in a horizontal section, an arch dam has a curved shape. This type of dam can also resist water pressure due to its particular shape that allows the transfer of the forces generated by the stored water to the rock foundations. This article takes a detailed look at hydraulic engineering in dams over the millennia. Lessons should be learned from the successful and unsuccessful applications and operations of dams. Water resource managers, policymakers, and stakeholders can use these lessons to achieve sustainable development goals in times of climate change and water crisis. Full article

This paper addresses the problem of removing 3D effects as one of the most challenging problems related to 2D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) monitoring of embankment structures. When processing 2D ERT monitoring data measured along linear profiles, it is fundamental to estimate and correct the distortions introduced by the non-uniform 3D geometry of the embankment. Here, I adopt an iterative 3D correction plus 2D inversion procedure to correct the 3D effects and I test the validity of the proposed algorithm using both synthetic and real data. The modelled embankment is inspired by a critical section of the Parma River levee in Colorno (PR), Italy, where a permanent ERT monitoring system has been in operation since November 2018. For each model of the embankment, reference synthetic data were produced in Res2dmod and Res3dmod for the corresponding 2D and 3D models. Using the reference synthetic data, reference 3D effects were calculated to be compared with 3D effects estimated by the proposed algorithm at each iteration. The results of the synthetic tests showed that even in the absence of a priori information, the proposed algorithm for correcting 3D effects converges rapidly to ideal corrections. Having validated the proposed algorithm through synthetic tests, the method was applied to the ERT monitoring data in the study site to remove 3D effects. Two real datasets from the study site, taken after dry and rainy periods, are discussed here. The results showed that 3D effects cause about ±50% changes in the inverted resistivity images for both periods. This is a critical artifact considering that the final objective of ERT monitoring data for such studies is to produce water content maps to be integrated in alarm systems for hydrogeological risk mitigation. The proposed algorithm to remove 3D effects is thus a rapid and validated solution to satisfy near-real-time data processing and to produce reliable results. Full article

The work detailed here is part of an international initiative on the evaluation of dam safety simulation software for internal erosion performance and best practices. The primary experiments involve simulating uncertainty in the failure events of two dams with two different models: DLBreach and WinDAM C. DLBreach is a physically-based dam/levee breach model developed by Wu. WinDAM C is also a physically based dam breach model capable of analyzing both dam overtopping and internal erosion. The dams selected for the analysis include a 1.3 m high dam tested in the lab and a larger 15.56 m high dam, which suffered a failure in the field. The findings from these experiments are extended with a further analysis on variance, sensitivity, and optimization. Finally, a regression model is trained using the results of these simulators as an inquiry into how well such a system can be captured using machine learning techniques. The results of these experiments, together with the results of the other members of the initiative, improve our understanding of the influences that users bring to using these tools. Full article

Over half of the approximately 12,000 earthen watershed dams sponsored by the USDA have exceeded their planned 50-year service life. Age, land use changes, extreme weather events, structural deterioration, and sedimentation filling flood pools pose increased risks of dam incidents and potential failures. Among various mechanisms leading to integrity issues, soil erosion is of particular concern due to its potential to occur with little warning. The objective of this research is to determine if soil erosion can be predicted using acoustic emissions. A simulated dam overtopping experiment was replicated in a test flume with dimensions of 0.61 m by 4.27 m (2 ft. by 14 ft.) with a 13.7% slope and a 0.15 m (6 in) layer of inorganic clay (USCS CL) compacted at 17.4% moisture content. A constant flow discharge of 0.07 m³/s (2.37 cfs) was applied to induce erosion. The test was performed until complete failure of the test section occurred. Throughout the experiment, a sonar radar, a 3D scanning total station, and an accelerometer were used to monitor the water level, erosion levels, and vibrations, respectively. The frequency analysis of the water-induced vibrations was compared to measured erosion volumes to determine if in situ vibrations can predict erosion. The results revealed a linear relationship between erosion volume and time, with noticeable changes in the frequency domains as erosion progressed. The outcomes of this research have the potential to provide real-time insights into the integrity of earthen dams concerning erosion, offering a valuable tool for monitoring and maintenance. Full article

New Japanese regulations governing earth embankment construction were introduced after a debris flow in Atami City, Shizuoka Prefecture, caused significant damage. Slope failures block river channels during earthquakes, triggering flooding, inundation, and debris flows. Appropriate risk assessments are crucial for residential areas potentially impacted by earthen embankment landslides during seismic events. This study evaluates the methods used to assess the potential damage caused by such landslides and previous research on the harm caused by embankment failures during earthquakes. We derived predictive equations based on statistical analyses of historical dam landslides that triggered river channel blockages when residential earth embankments failed in the Nigawa Yurino area. The equations describe the morphologies of landslide dams in river channels. The results indicated that the predictive equations were reasonably accurate. We built and validated a two-dimensional model of landslide dam overtopping and breaching using experimental data on a gently sloping dam. We derived the outflow volumes associated with residential earth embankment failures when full reservoirs breached in the Nigawa Yurino area. Our findings suggest that the peak outflow volumes after such embankments breach are generally lower than those associated with dam landslides or deep-seated dam failures, but higher than those of glacial lake outburst floods. Full article

Mineral extraction is of ultimate importance for the economies of different countries, and Brazil is one of the world’s leading producers of iron ores. Unfortunately, dams are still the main problem, mainly in Minas Gerais, especially after the Fundão Dam rupture in 2015. Additionally, there is still a massive presence of buildings built on earth throughout the Minas Gerais mining region, built from the 18th century to today. Investigating the potential of iron ore tailings (IOT) to be incorporated into traditional earthen construction techniques in regions affected by dam ruptures presents a relevant and innovative research approach. In addition, the local reuse of these sediments should be the priority. Thus, the main objective of this work was to collect, characterize, and analyze the possibilities of the application of these tailings to produce rammed earth (RE). A complete characterization analysis was performed on the samples collected at three points. To analyze the soil-IOT compatibility, representative mixtures of RE were produced, and the specific mass, compaction, and compressive strength were performed. It was observed that the IOT samples have a high silica content and that the mixtures of IOT–soil, even without cement, reached the compressive strength values of the international standards, or even above them. Full article

Freezing conditions under different humidity will influence the mechanical properties of geotextiles, leading to the gradual fracture of geotextiles. It brings hidden danger to the whole isolation, reinforcement and protection of rock and soil. It is particularly important to study the tensile and puncture properties of geotextiles considering low temperature and moisture content. In this paper, a series of tensile and puncture tests of geotextiles are performed under different low temperatures (0, −3, −6, −9, and −12 °C) and at different moisture content levels (0, 5, 10, 30, 50, and 80%). From the microscopic perspective, the failure mechanism considering the low temperature and moisture content was explained comprehensively. Experimental results indicate that with a decrease in freezing temperature, the tensile strength of geotextiles increases as a parabolic function while the elongation at failure decreases as an exponential function. Additionally, the puncture strength of geotextiles presented a parabolic increase with the decreasing temperature. Under the freezing temperature environment, the higher moisture content of geotextiles can generate a higher puncture strength increment. This research contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the tensile and puncture properties of geotextile materials considering low temperature and moisture content. It can provide important guidance for the design of slopes, the reinforcement of earthen dams, and roadbed reinforcement with geotextiles in cold regions. Full article