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Current research on glial cells has primarily focused on central nervous system glial cells (CNS glia), with relatively fewer studies on EGCs. Given the critical role of EGCs in maintaining intestinal homeostasis and neural function, this study aimed to investigate their immunomodulatory effects under inflammatory conditions. Primary EGCs were isolated and an inflammatory model was established by treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Following LPS induction, cellular samples were collected for transcriptomic analysis to identify differentially expressed genes. The analysis revealed that 88 genes were significantly altered, with 60 upregulated and 28 downregulated. Through Gene Ontology (GO) classification, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway mapping, and protein–protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, several key regulatory genes were identified: chemokine-related genes (IL8L2, IL8L1, CCL4, CCL5, and CX3CL1); negative feedback regulation-related genes (TNFAIP3 and ZC3H12A); homeostasis-maintaining genes (C1QB and LY86); and arachidonic acid metabolism-related genes (PTGS2 and GGT2). Under LPS stimulation without impairing EGC viability, EGCs may recruit immune cells by regulating the aforementioned genes. Additionally, arachidonic acid and its metabolites likely play important regulatory roles in EGC-mediated immunomodulation. These findings provide new theoretical insights and potential targets for further elucidating the pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation and developing targeted therapies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bioinformatics)

22 pages, 5529 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Testing of Straw Collector Crushing Mechanism Based on DEM-MBD Coupled Simulation

by Jie Yang, Song Yue, Zheng Zhang, Dongdong Gu, Ge Shi, Xiao Xiao and Jinfa Shi

Agriculture 2026, 16(3), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16030305 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

To address the low efficiency of corn straw collection, this study aims to optimize the design of the straw shredding mechanism of corn straw harvesters. A multi-blade arrangement shredding mechanism was designed, with ANSYS 2022 employed for gas-phase flow field simulation of the pick-up and fan conveying chambers, and a multi-field coupled simulation was conducted to evaluate performance using pick-up rate and qualified cutting length rate as metrics. Field tests were carried out to validate the simulation results. The results show that the DC-type pick-up (symmetrically arranged Y-shaped and hammer claw blades) exhibited optimal performance. At a travel speed of 1.2 m/s and rotational speed of 2100 r/min, the pick-up rate and qualified cutting length rate reached 93.62% and 93.94%, respectively, in field tests (81.34% pick-up rate in simulation); its maximum collection efficiency reached 92.98% under the conditions of fan 1 speed of 2300 r/min, fan 2 speed of 4600 r/min, and single feed rate of 9.4 kg. All pick-up types had maximum forces below the stress limit (348 MPa), meeting operational requirements. This research provides reliable references for the design and optimization of corn straw returning machines and verifies the accuracy of the simulation method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

35 pages, 1247 KB

Open AccessArticle

One Class of H_∞ Cheap Control Problems: Asymptotic Solution

by Valery Y. Glizer and Vladimir Turetsky

Axioms 2026, 15(2), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/axioms15020087 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

An infinite-horizon

H_{\infty}

An infinite-horizon

H_{\infty}

linear-quadratic control problem is considered. This problem has the following features: (i) the control cost in the cost functional has a positive small coefficient (small parameter), meaning that the control cost is much smaller than the state cost; (ii) the current cost of the fast state variable in the cost functional is a non-zero positive semi-definite quadratic form. These features require developing a significantly novel approach to asymptotic analysis of the matrix Riccati algebraic equation appearing in the solvability conditions of the considered

H_{\infty}

problem. Using this solution, an asymptotic analysis of the

H_{\infty}

problem is carried out. This analysis yields parameter-free solvability conditions for this problem and a simplified controller solving this problem. An example illustrating the theoretical results is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mathematical Optimal Control and Applications)

26 pages, 12755 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling Time-Series Sentinel-2 Imagery with Multi-Scale Landscape Metrics to Decipher Seasonal Waterbird Diversity Patterns

by Jiaxu Fan, Lei Cui, Yi Lian, Peng Du, Yangqianqian Ren, Xunqiang Mo and Zhengwang Zhang

Remote Sens. 2026, 18(3), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs18030405 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Seasonal dynamics in wetland landscapes are closely associated with habitat availability and are likely to influence the spatial organization and diversity of waterbird communities. However, most existing studies rely on static land-cover representations or single spatial scales, limiting our ability to characterize how waterbirds respond to seasonally shifting habitats across scales. Focusing on the Qilihai Wetland in Tianjin, China, we combined high-frequency waterbird surveys from 2019–2021 with multi-temporal, season-matched Sentinel-2 imagery and the Dynamic World dataset. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) was applied across a continuous spatial gradient (100–3000 m) to quantify scale-dependent statistical associations between landscape composition and configuration derived from satellite-mapped habitat mosaics on different functional groups. Waterbird diversity exhibited pronounced seasonal contrasts. During the breeding and post-fledging period, high-diversity assemblages were stably concentrated within core wetland areas, showing limited spatial variability. In contrast, during the wintering and stopover period, community distributions became increasingly dispersed, with elevated spatial heterogeneity and interannual variability associated with habitat reorganization. The scale of effect shifted systematically between seasons. In the breeding and post-fledging period, both waterfowl and waders responded predominantly to local-scale landscape factors (<800 m), consistent with nesting requirements and microhabitat conditions. During the wintering and stopover period, however, the characteristic response scale of waterfowl expanded to 1500–2000 m, suggesting stronger associations with broader landscape context, whereas waders remained closely linked to local-scale shallow-water and mudflat connectivity (~200 m). Functional traits played a key role in structuring these scale-dependent responses, with diving behavior and tarsus length being associated with strong constraints on habitat use. Overall, our results suggest that waterbird diversity patterns emerge from the interaction between seasonal habitat dynamics, landscape structure, and functional trait filtering, underscoring the need for phenology-informed, multi-scale conservation strategies that move beyond static spatial boundaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecological Remote Sensing)

14 pages, 813 KB

Open AccessCase Report

Comprehensive Conservative Management as Rescue Therapy After Haemodialysis Failure: Two Case Reports

by Francesca K. Martino, Alessandro Martella, Francesca Fioretti, Leda Cattarin, Federica L. Stefanelli and Federico Nalesso

Clin. Pract. 2026, 16(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/clinpract16020025 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background: Comprehensive conservative management (CCM) is a possible option in end-stage clinical disease, requiring multidisciplinary support and offering survival comparable to dialysis while improving quality of life in frail patients. Despite its potential benefits, CCM is often underutilized because nephrologists may perceive it as less effective compared to dialysis. We present two case reports of hemodialysis failure and of successful CCM. Case presentation: We present two case reports of elderly female patients—referred to as Patient 1 and Patient 2—who had multiple comorbidities but preserved urine output. Both patients, in accordance with their medical team, chose to discontinue hemodialysis due to poor treatment tolerance and declining overall health. They were successfully managed with CCM, leading to follow-up that revealed survival beyond 24 months, improvements in metabolic complications and quality of life, and a reduction in hospitalizations. Conclusions: These case reports demonstrate the effectiveness of dietary and medical management for end-stage kidney disease, particularly when dialysis negatively affects patients’ clinical conditions and quality of life. They also highlight the importance of considering CCM as a preferable option for frail elderly patients facing kidney failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Nutritional Management of Patients with Kidney Disease)

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15 pages, 1345 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of Fluoroquinolones: Revisiting the Grohe Route in DES-Based Media

by Rúben Neto, Luis Domingues and Ana Rita Jesus

Pharmaceuticals 2026, 19(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/ph19020208 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background: The development of greener synthetic routes to active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) is a key challenge in sustainable chemistry. Methods: In this work, we explored the use of deep eutectic solvents (DESs) in the multi-step synthesis of a fluoroquinolone following the Grohe method. Results: Several steps of the synthetic sequence were successfully carried out using DESs, achieving moderate to good yields, while operating under mild reaction conditions and reducing purification requirements. Overall, the use of DESs led to an overall yield of up to 43%. A comprehensive greenness assessment, combining EcoScale scoring and the GSK and CHEM21 solvent selection guides, confirmed the superior sustainability profile of DESs, reflecting their lower toxicity, biodegradability, and reduced energy demands. Conclusions: These findings establish DESs as promising, eco-friendly alternatives to volatile and hazardous organic solvents for the synthesis of quinolone derivatives, offering a valuable step toward more sustainable pharmaceutical manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Nitrogen-Containing Heterocycles)

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18 pages, 1102 KB

Open AccessReview

The Cross-Knit Between Immune Cells and Thyroid Function in Autoimmune Thyroid Disorders: What We Can Learn from Inborn Errors of Immunity

by Laura Grilli, Francesca Cillo, Roberta Romano, Giuliana Giardino, Francesca Romana Rotondo, Sara Vasaturo, Mariacarolina Salerno and Donatella Capalbo

Children 2026, 13(2), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/children13020169 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITDs), including Hashimoto thyroiditis and Graves’ disease, are the most common autoimmune endocrinopathies, affecting up to 5% of the population. Pathogenetic pathways have not yet been fully elucidated, even though different immune-genetic alterations have been proposed. Specific immune defects presenting with AITDs may serve as an experimentum naturae to study the involvement of a specific pathway in the pathogenesis of the disease. In fact, since immune dysregulation with autoimmunity frequently characterize inborn errors of immunity (IEIs), understanding the mechanisms of immune tolerance breakdown leading to autoimmunity in these conditions may provide useful insight to understand the pathogenesis of AITDs. In this review, we will highlight the main immunological aspects of AITDs and their pathogenesis in IEIs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pediatric Endocrinology & Diabetes)

24 pages, 1030 KB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Transformation and High-Quality Development in China’s Leading Agribusiness Firms: A TOE-Based Configurational Analysis

by Xi Zhou, Jingyi Hu, Wen Liu and Yuchuan Fan

Agriculture 2026, 16(3), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16030304 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Leading agribusiness firms are pivotal to modernizing agricultural supply chains, yet evidence on how digital transformation translates into high-quality development remains fragmented. Using a 2024 sample of 30 Chinese national agribusiness leaders and the technology–organization–environment (TOE) framework, we integrate grey relational analysis with DEMATEL to quantify interdependencies among conditions, and combine fuzzy-set QCA with necessary condition analysis to identify both configurational pathways and binding constraints. The results of the analysis indicate that high-quality development rarely stems from a single driver; it emerges from complementary bundles linking digital technologies and R&D investment with organizational readiness (e.g., talent and governance) under supportive external conditions (e.g., policy incentives and market pressure). The findings provide a configurational explanation of digital upgrading in agribusiness and inform differentiated digital strategies for managers and policymakers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

13 pages, 1314 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Plant-Derived Protein Hydrolysates as Biostimulants for Enhancing Growth and Mitigating Fe-Deficiency Stress in Tomato

by Eleonora Coppa, Francesco Caddeu, Mariateresa Cardarelli, Giuseppe Colla and Stefania Astolfi

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030304 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Sustainable agriculture increasingly relies on biostimulants like protein hydrolysates (PHs) to enhance crop resilience. This study characterized and compared three plant-derived PHs (PH1, PH2, and PH3) from the Malvaceae, Brassicaceae, and Fabaceae families, respectively, under optimal (40 µM Fe³⁺-EDTA) and iron (Fe)-deficient (4 µM Fe³⁺-EDTA) conditions. Initial assays demonstrated that the PHs possessed significant antioxidant capacity and influenced biological activity: PH2 and PH3 promoted pollen germination, while PH1 exhibited a weaker stimulatory effect. In vivo experiments on tomato plants revealed that PH application effectively modulated root architecture and biomass accumulation. Moreover, PH2 and PH3 significantly mitigated Fe deficiency’s impact, by maintaining biomass and preventing chlorosis. Interestingly, while Fe deficiency typically triggers massive root Fe³⁺-chelate reductase activity, PH treatments, particularly PH2, significantly down-regulated this response. This suggests that PHs may improve internal Fe use efficiency or facilitate alternative uptake pathways. Overall, these findings establish a link between the intrinsic bioactive properties of PHs and their biostimulant action, highlighting their potential as innovative tools for improving nutrient use efficiency and crop resilience in sustainable farming systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Nutrient Dynamics: From Soil to Harvest and Beyond)

18 pages, 1347 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dry Pass, Wet Fail: Ground Impedance Testing of Field-Aged PV Modules—Implications for Repowering/Revamping Within 5–10 years and for Environmental Sustainability

by Vladislav Poulek, Vaclav Beranek, Tomas Finsterle and Martin Kozelka

Sustainability 2026, 18(3), 1212; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031212 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

The ground impedance (insulation resistance R_isol) of photovoltaic (PV) modules is usually measured only in the dry state, even though arrays frequently operate under dew-wet or rain-wet conditions, when leakage paths can change. We measured dry insulation resistance R_dry and IEC 61215 MQT 15 wet leakage resistance R_wet for N = 37 field-aged crystalline-silicon modules from utility-scale plants and related the results to the IEC 40 MΩ·m² criterion (R_wet·× A ≥ 40). The measurements used 1000 V DC and a 2 min dwell; R_wet was obtained in a salted bath with a solution resistivity < 3500 Ω·cm. The median R_dry was 42.4 GΩ, whereas the median R_wet was 462.5 MΩ, resulting in a median R_dry/R_wet ratio of ~110×. Three modules (8.1%) failed the 40 MΩ·m² limit already in the dry state, whereas eight modules (21.6%) failed under IEC-wet conditions; five were dry-pass/wet-fail cases that would have passed dry screening. For a representative area A = 1.8 m², a practical conservative dry triage threshold of approximately 55.5 GΩ identifies modules needing IEC-wet verification rather than serving as a stand-alone limit. Overall, combining dry and IEC-wet measurements improves safety and supports sustainability through resource-efficient repowering/revamping and end-of-life decisions in large PV fleets, particularly in hot climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Sustainability)

16 pages, 1954 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal-Oxidative Aging Behavior of Waste Engine Oil Bottom-Rejuvenated Asphalt Binder

by Rukai Li, Dawei Shi, Hongmei Zhu and Chuanqiang Li

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(3), 1234; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16031234 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Incorporating waste engine oil bottoms (WEOBs) as rejuvenators into reclaimed asphalt pavement offers a sustainable solution to reduce the consumption of non-renewable resources. To explore the effect of WEOBs on aged asphalt, WEOB-rejuvenated asphalt (WEOB-asphalt) with different thermal-oxidative aging times was prepared. Subsequently, viscosity, double-edge-notched tension (DENT), temperature sweep, linear amplitude sweep (LAS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) tests were conducted to investigate the performance of WEOB-asphalt. The results indicate that WEOB-asphalt shows acceptable thermal-oxidative aging ability within 180 min. The WEOB-asphalt experiences a small decrease in critical crack tip opening displacement within a 180 min aging time. Additionally, the temperature sensitivity of WEOB-asphalt is low, and the rutting factors at temperatures of 46 °C and 52 °C can significantly distinguish the thermal-oxidative aging performance of asphalt at different aging degrees. The fatigue life of WEOB-asphalt decreases compared to the original asphalt after 540 min of aging when the strain exceeds 0.04%. Furthermore, WEOB-asphalt displays increased carbonyl and sulfoxide groups, indicating poorer thermal-oxidative aging resistance than the original asphalt. Based on these results, it is suggested that WEOB-asphalt should be used in areas with mild climate conditions to avoid its rapid secondary aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pavement Construction: Material Characterization and Durability Analysis, 2nd Edition)

31 pages, 4489 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Hybrid Intrusion Detection Framework Using Deep Autoencoder and Machine Learning Models

by Salam Allawi Hussein and Sándor R. Répás

AI 2026, 7(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/ai7020039 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study provides a detailed comparative analysis of a three-hybrid intrusion detection method aimed at strengthening network security through precise and adaptive threat identification. The proposed framework integrates an Autoencoder-Gaussian Mixture Model (AE-GMM) with two supervised learning techniques, XGBoost and Logistic Regression, combining deep feature extraction with interpretability and stable generalization. Although the downstream classifiers are trained in a supervised manner, the hybrid intrusion detection nature of the framework is preserved through unsupervised representation learning and probabilistic modeling in the AE-GMM stage. Two benchmark datasets were used for evaluation: NSL-KDD, representing traditional network behavior, and UNSW-NB15, reflecting modern and diverse traffic patterns. A consistent preprocessing pipeline was applied, including normalization, feature selection, and dimensionality reduction, to ensure fair comparison and efficient training. The experimental findings show that hybridizing deep learning with gradient-boosted and linear classifiers markedly enhances detection performance and resilience. The AE–GMM-XGBoost model achieved superior outcomes, reaching an F1-score above 0.94 ± 0.0021 and an AUC greater than 0.97 on both datasets, demonstrating high accuracy in distinguishing legitimate and malicious traffic. AE-GMM-Logistic Regression also achieved strong and balanced performance, recording an F1-score exceeding 0.91 ± 0.0020 with stable generalization across test conditions. Conversely, the standalone AE-GMM effectively captured deep latent patterns but exhibited lower recall, indicating limited sensitivity to subtle or emerging attacks. These results collectively confirm that integrating autoencoder-based representation learning with advanced supervised models significantly improves intrusion detection in complex network settings. The proposed framework therefore provides a solid and extensible basis for future research in explainable and federated intrusion detection, supporting the development of adaptive and proactive cybersecurity defenses. Full article

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26 pages, 2212 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Irrigation Lower Limit and Nitrogen Rate on Productivity, Resource Use Efficiency, and Economic Benefits of Winter Rapeseed in Semi-Arid Conditions

by Mahmood Hemat, Xiaohui Ding, Qingqing Sui, Bingxue Dong, Zhentao Bai and Junliang Fan

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030302 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Integrated water and nitrogen management plays a crucial role in the sustainable intensification of rapeseed production, particularly in water-limited regions. This two-year field study (2022–2024) evaluated the interactive effects of three irrigation lower limits—W₁ (90% of field capacity, [FC]), W₂ (70% FC), and W₃ (50% FC)—and four nitrogen rates (0, 80, 160, and 240 kg N ha⁻¹; representing N₀, N₁, N₂, N₃, and N₄) on winter rapeseed growth, yield, resource use efficiency, and economic performance under semi-arid conditions. Both irrigation and nitrogen significantly influenced plant growth, photosynthetic performance, biomass accumulation, and yield formation, with pronounced interactive effects observed across most measured parameters. The W₁N₂ treatment achieved optimal performance, producing seed yields of 5131 and 3220 kg ha⁻¹ with superior nitrogen use efficiency. Overall, N₁, N₂, and N₃ increased yield by 38.12%, 79.26%, and 84.85%, respectively, relative to N₀. Compared with W₃N₀, W₁N₂ improved yield by 178%, water use efficiency by 131%, and irrigation water use efficiency by 110%. Relative to W₁N₃, W₁N₂ increased nitrogen agronomic efficiency, physiological efficiency, recovery efficiency, and partial factor productivity by 40.5%, 7.4%, 30.4%, and 45.2%, respectively, while reducing nitrate nitrogen residue by 12%. Entropy-TOPSIS analysis identified W₁N₂ as the top-ranked treatment, indicating that optimized irrigation and nitrogen management offer a sustainable strategy to maximize rapeseed productivity, enhance resource-use efficiency, and improve economic returns under water-limited conditions. For practical application in semi-arid environments, the W₁N₂ treatment is recommended as the optimal management strategy for sustainable winter rapeseed intensification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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17 pages, 3157 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effects of Newer Veterinary Macrolide Antimicrobials on the CYP3A-Dependent Metabolism in Cattle Liver Microsomes: Potential Metabolic Drug–Drug Interaction with Monensin

by Paula Ichinose, Juan Pablo Munafó, María Victoria Miró, Marcela Valente, Laura Moreno-Torrejón, Karen Larsen, Carlos Lanusse, Adrián Lifschitz and Guillermo Virkel

Animals 2026, 16(3), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16030378 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Traditional macrolide antimicrobials are inhibitors of cytochrome P4503A (CYP3A) in cattle liver. Monensin (MON), an ionophore with a narrow safety margin, undergoes CYP3A-dependent O-demethylation, and its incompatibility with macrolides is well recognized in livestock animals. This study evaluated the effects of newer macrolides—tilmicosin (TIL), tulathromycin (TUL), and gamithromycin (GAM)—on CYP3A-dependent metabolism in bovine liver microsomes and examined how these drugs influence MON hepatic metabolism. Molecular docking studies were also performed to predict their interactions with CYP3A enzymes. The CYP3A-dependent enzyme activity, testosterone 6β-hydroxylase, was inhibited in the presence of triacetyl-oleandomycin (used as a reference macrolide), as well as with MON. None of the other macrolides tested affected this enzymatic activity. All macrolides inhibited MON metabolism, but the extent of inhibition observed with triacetyl-oleandomycin was higher than that produced by TIL, TUL, and GAM. Molecular docking analyses indicated that triacetyl-oleandomycin and MON exhibited the highest binding affinities for the active site of CYP3A isozymes, compared with TIL, TUL, and GAM. The agreement between enzymatic data and in silico predictions indicates that TIL, TUL, and GAM are weaker inhibitors of CYP3A-mediated MON metabolism. The modest reduction in MON hepatic metabolism caused by these macrolides—commonly used in cattle feedlots—suggests a low likelihood of clinically relevant drug–drug interactions under typical dosing conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Cattle)

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21 pages, 1115 KB

Open AccessArticle

New Insight into Cavitation-Assisted Chemical Refining and Enzymatic Modification of Vegetable Oils and Their Impact on Physicochemical Properties of Final Products

by Katsiaryna Kalenchak, Lucie Nováková, Tereza Váchalová, Tereza Honzíková, Tomáš Hybner, Aleš Rajchl, Helena Čížková, Iveta Šístková, Vojtěch Kružík, Markéta Berčíková and Jan Kyselka

Foods 2026, 15(3), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15030439 (registering DOI) - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

The present study evaluates the impact of cavitation on the performance of the chemical refining of rapeseed oils and the enzymatic interesterification of fat blends using a powerful UP400S ultrasonicator (400 W, 20 kHz). Ultrasound-assisted alkali neutralization achieved efficiency comparable to that of the conventional 60 min process in only 7 min, with similar refining losses (5.04–6.80 wt.%), although slightly higher lipid peroxidation was observed. Performing the ultrasound cavitation under a protective nitrogen atmosphere minimized the formation of lipid peroxides and their breakdown products (i.e., hexanal, nonanal), partially protected tocopherols, and improved oxidative stability (IP at 120 °C = 3.9–4.4 h). Ultrasound-assisted enzymatic interesterification (EIE) of palm kernel fat and a palm stearin blend catalyzed by immobilized lipases (Lipozyme TL IM, Lipozyme RM IM, Novozyme 435) was carried out for the first time. Cavitation accelerated triacylglycerol rearrangement, reduced reaction time from 6 h (9.0·10⁻³ to 1.6·10⁻² min⁻¹) to only 1 h (5.5·10⁻² to 1.2·10⁻¹ min⁻¹), and significantly affected melting point stabilization and solid fat content profile. In summary, ultrasound cavitation substantially enhanced mass transfer and reaction kinetics, demonstrating strong potential for process intensification in the edible oil industry. Further optimization of reaction conditions is required before large-scale industrial implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Engineering and Technology)

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