Search Results (7,034)

Background: Piperine, an alkaloid from Piper nigrum, modulates oxidative stress, proliferation, and survival pathways in several cancer models; however, its mechanistic effects in colorectal epithelial Caco-2 cells remain insufficiently defined. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the cytotoxic, antiproliferative, oxidative, autophagic, and anti-migratory effects of piperine in Caco-2 cells. Methods: Caco-2 cells were treated with piperine (0.001–0.1 mg/mL) for up to 72 h. Cell viability, proliferation, and migration were assessed using SRB and scratch assays. Oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy, and tight junction integrity were evaluated through ROS quantification, Western blotting, gene expression analysis, confocal microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). NACET was used to determine the contribution of oxidative stress to piperine-induced cytotoxicity and autophagy. Results: Piperine induced a time- and dose-dependent reduction in viability, with viability decreasing to 53.0 ± 2.88% at 0.1 mg/mL after 72 h. Proliferation decreased to 51% of control levels (p < 0.001), accompanied by p21 upregulation (p < 0.05), indicating G2/M cell cycle arrest. Piperine markedly increased intracellular ROS (p < 0.001), downregulated NRF2 (p < 0.05), and suppressed GSTA1 expression (p < 0.001), while NACET co-treatment restored viability (p < 0.001). No activation of caspase-dependent apoptosis was observed. Piperine significantly enhanced autophagic flux, as shown by the increased LC3B-II/LC3B-I ratio (p < 0.01), elevated LC3B-II/LAMP-1 co-localization (p < 0.01), and chloroquine-induced accumulation of LC3B-II and p62 (p < 0.01), with preserved lysosomal function. TEM analysis confirmed a marked increase in double-membrane autophagosomes in piperine-treated cells compared with controls. NACET reduced LC3B-II/LC3B-I levels, increased p21 expression, and significantly improved cell viability, indicating that piperine-induced autophagy is cytotoxic and driven by oxidative stress. Additionally, piperine upregulated occludin (p < 0.01) and reduced cell migration independently of proliferation (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Piperine exerts antiproliferative effects in Caco-2 cells through ROS-mediated stress, p21-dependent G2/M arrest, and activation of cytotoxic autophagy. Its ability to impair migration and enhance tight junction integrity further supports its potential as a complementary therapeutic agent in colon cancer. Full article

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a pivotal biological process that occurs at various stages of plant development, including embryogenesis and seed germination. This study investigated whether the absence of PCD in endosperm cells is connected to the poor germination of Viola odorata seeds. Seeds of poorly germinating V. odorata and well-germinating V. × wittrockiana were either cold-stratified for 10 days or left untreated. Germination tests, tetrazolium viability tests, Western blot analyses for caspase-like proteases, and Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assays for DNA strand break detection were performed. The results revealed that V. odorata seeds did not germinate, regardless of stratification or lack thereof, whereas in V. × wittrockiana, stratification significantly increased their germination capacity (34 ± 6.5% vs. 56.5 ± 9.8% in non-stratified and stratified seeds, respectively). The tetrazolium viability test revealed that V. odorata seeds were nonviable (100% nonviable endosperm and 96% nonviable embryos in total), whereas the seeds of V. × wittrockiana were highly viable (63% and 59% endosperm and embryos in total, respectively). Western blot analysis revealed that in the germinating seeds of V. × wittrockiana, caspase-like activity was detected in the endosperm but not in the embryos, whereas in seeds that failed to germinate, the PCD signal in the endosperm was very weak. In the seeds of V. odorata, caspase-like activity was detected in the embryos and endosperm collected directly after 10 days of stratification, but no signal was detected in the seeds left to germinate for one month after cold stratification. TUNEL assays revealed DNA strand breaks in the peripheral part of the endosperm in V. odorata and in non-germinating V. × wittrockiana, whereas in the germinating seeds of V. × wittrockiana, DNA strand breaks were detected in the endosperm cells adjacent to the embryo. These findings indicate that endosperm-localized PCD facilitates nutrient mobilization to the embryo and seems crucial for successful germination. Overall, these results suggest that PCD contributes to the regulation of seed germination in Viola spp. Full article

The mitochondrial anti-viral signaling protein, MAVS, is a central regulator of innate anti-viral immunity. Recently, we demonstrated that MAVS is overexpressed in cancer, where its downregulation resulted in reduced cell proliferation and the expression and nuclear translocation of proteins associated with transcriptional regulation and inflammation. In this study, we demonstrate that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated MAVS depletion in PC-3 prostate cancer cells suppresses proliferation, disrupts immune evasion, and alters the tumor microenvironment. Proteomic profiling of the MAVS-KO cells by LC-MS/MS revealed changes in the expression of proteins associated with immunity, cell signaling, mitochondrial function, metabolism, protein synthesis and degradation, and epigenetic regulation. In contrast to MAVS-expressing cells, MAVS-KO cells implanted subcutaneously in mice formed very small tumors. This inhibited tumor growth was linked to reduced proliferation, and enhanced apoptosis, as indicated by strong TUNEL staining and elevated activated caspase-3. Importantly, the small “tumors” derived from MAVS-KO cells displayed a distinct morphology: diminished cancer stem-cell populations, an altered tumor microenvironment and inflammatory response, increased immune cell infiltration, and reduced PD-L1 expression. Together, these findings establish MAVS as a key mediator of cancer-cell survival, inflammation, and immune regulation, and, thus, its upregulation in tumors makes it a potential anti-cancer target. Full article

Background: Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is an aggressive cancer closely associated with smoking and alcohol consumption, with a higher incidence in men. Despite changes in treatment strategies, poor survival persists in most patients, highlighting the need for novel and improved therapeutic options. Naphthoquinone analogs are being investigated because of their active redox structure and broad pharmacological profile; they demonstrate cytotoxic antitumor activity, making them potential candidates for new drug agents. Objective: This study investigated new benzyl-naphthoquinone compounds as potential anticancer agents for various genotypes of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and other cancer cells. Methods: This study reports the synthesis and evaluation of a series of eight benzyl-naphthoquinone compounds against oral squamous cell carcinoma. Results: Four compounds 1–4 showed the best cytotoxic profiles, with a selectivity index ≥ 3 for all OSCC cell lines tested. Compound 1 was the most selective compound in all OSCC models, showing a higher selectivity index than both carboplatin and shikonin. Furthermore, compound 1 induced DNA fragmentation, cell-cycle arrest, and caspase-3/7 activation, changes consistent with apoptosis, and time-lapse imaging corroborated the apoptotic phenotype. Hemolysis assays showed minimal toxicity in human erythrocytes, and acute in vivo evaluation in mice revealed no evident adverse effects under the conditions tested, indicating low acute toxicity, although more detailed histopathological and biochemical studies will be required to fully establish the safety profile. Molecular modeling suggested that compound 1 may interact with topoisomerase II, RSK2, and PKM2, which could contribute to the activation of apoptotic pathways, although these interactions remain predictive and require biochemical validation. Finally, in silico analysis of physicochemical and ADMET parameters indicated properties compatible with oral absorption and systemic exposure, together with predicted low toxicity; however, these results are model-based and should be confirmed experimentally. Conclusions: Based on these findings, compound 1 emerges as a promising lead candidate for the development of a novel chemotherapeutic agent against OSCC, with potential therapeutic efficacy against other cancer types. Full article

In response to recent advances in computer-aided drug discovery (CADD) enabled by high-performance computing, computational approaches were employed to support and rationalize the investigation of a VEGFR-2-targeted anticancer candidate, combining molecular-level modeling with experimental validation. Initial in silico ADMET profiling and molecular docking were conducted to support the evaluation of drug-like properties and target engagement within a series of para-toluidine-based derivatives (1–14). The most biologically active compound was further evaluated through 100 ns molecular dynamics simulations and comprehensive DFT calculations to investigate binding stability and electronic characteristics. Based on a rational design strategy and supported by computational analyses, the compounds were synthesized and fully characterized using IR, MS, ¹H/¹³C NMR, and elemental analysis. Biological evaluation was performed against HepG-2, MCF-7, HCT-116, and normal WI-38 cells. Mechanistic studies included VEGFR-2 inhibition, wound-healing migration assays, cell-cycle distribution analysis, apoptosis assessment, and caspase-3 activation. Several derivatives exhibited micromolar cytotoxic activity, with compound 14 emerging as the most active against HepG-2 cells (IC₅₀ = 7.84 ± 0.5 µM), showing cytotoxic activity comparable to that of sorafenib (IC₅₀ = 9.18 ± 0.6 µM) and demonstrating favorable selectivity toward normal WI-38 cells (IC₅₀ = 67.75 ± 3.6 µM). Compound 14 showed moderate VEGFR-2 inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 0.55 µM), significant suppression of cell migration, pronounced G₀/G₁ cell-cycle arrest, and robust apoptosis induction supported by caspase-3 activation. Molecular docking and MD simulations supported a stable binding mode within the VEGFR-2 active site. This integrated framework highlights compound 14 as a selectively active VEGFR-2-oriented anticancer candidate scaffold with a favorable selectivity profile, supported by experimental and computational analyses, warranting further lead optimization. Full article

Norfloxacin has been widely found in water bodies and exhibits a strong toxic effect on aquatic organisms. To uncover its toxic mechanism on algae, the cell growth, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, physiological activities, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), caspase-3-like activity, cell morphology, TUNEL-positive nuclei and DNA ladders were determined in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in exposure to norfloxacin. With raising norfloxacin concentration, the inhibitory and lethal effects on C. reinhardtii cells gradually enhanced, and the whole of the cells were dead under 50 μM for 24 h. During the cell death, respiratory and photosynthetic rate gradually reduced and disappeared after 24 h, while ROS quickly burst and maintained high levels during the 24 h. The MMP was markedly broken after 0.5 h, while caspase-3-like was activated, with the highest activity at the 2nd h. With prolonging the treatment time, the algal cells showed a gradual shrinking and wrinkling trend, while the numbers and fluorescence intensity of TUNEL-positive nuclei gradually increased. Meanwhile, the DNA was degraded by Ca²⁺-dependent endonucleases to show ladders after 6 h, and the degradation gradually enhanced during the death process. These characteristics demonstrate that norfloxacin can poison algae by triggering programmed cell death induced by the elevated ROS. Full article

Background/Objectives: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most infiltrative, treatment-resistant, and deadly brain tumor in adults. Given the extremely malignant phenotype of the GBM cells, the high intratumoral heterogeneity, and the limited efficacy of the vast majority of chemotherapeutics due to the restrictive nature of the blood–brain barrier, GBM remains largely incurable. Methods: Utilizing the U87, U251, and T98G GBM cell lines, diverse in vitro approaches (Western blotting, quantitative real-time PCR, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, Luc-reporter analysis, microscopic examination, and scanning electron microscopy), and pharmacological inhibition, we investigated for the first time the cell death decisions in the GBM cells in response to the LCS1269 treatment. Results: We showed that LCS1269 collapsed the mitochondrial potential and triggered both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis. Importantly, our findings demonstrated that LCS1269-mediated apoptosis was paralleled by an induction of both MLKL-dependent necroptosis and caspase-3/GSDME-dependent pyroptosis. Using a combination of specific inhibitors, we further demonstrated that apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis provoked by LCS1269 occur simultaneously and orchestrate a peculiar form of programmed cell death, which is known as PANoptosis. We subsequently found that LCS1269-induced PANoptosis may be initiated either through the RIPK1-PANoptosome alone or through the integrated ZBP1-, AIM2-, and RIPK1-PANoptosomes. Additionally, we revealed that LCS1269-mediated PANoptosis may be closely related to micronuclei formation. Conclusions: Taken together, our results confirm that LCS1269 is a promising anti-glioblastoma agent that is capable of effectively promoting GBM cell death via PANoptosis. Full article

Background/Objectives: Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) and Charcot foot (CF) represent progressive and disabling neuropathic complications of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Circulating microRNAs and inflammatory cytokines may reflect underlying molecular alterations associated with disease progression and offer potential value for discriminating between stages of diabetic neuropathic complications. This study aimed to evaluate circulating miRNA expression profiles and inflammatory cytokine biomarkers in T2DM patients with and without neuropathic complications and to assess their potential non-invasive utility as combined biomarkers for differentiating disease stages and identifying molecular patterns associated with progression from T2DM to DPN and CF. Methods: The study included the following four groups: healthy controls, T2DM patients without complications, T2DM patients with DPN, and T2DM patients with CF. Expression profiles of five miRNAs (miR-19b-3p, miR-451a, miR-199a-3p, miR-146a-5p, and miR-93-5p) were quantified using qPCR. Inflammatory cytokine biomarkers including NLRP3, TNF-α, NF-κB, IL-1β, caspase-3, and Serpin E2 were measured using ELISA assays. Results: Distinct expression patterns of both miRNAs and inflammatory cytokine biomarkers were observed across diabetic neuropathy stages. Several miRNAs demonstrated significant dysregulation in DPN and CF compared with T2DM patients without complications. Correlation analyses revealed stage-specific patterns of interaction between inflammatory cytokines and miRNAs, indicating coordinated molecular alterations across different stages of diabetic neuropathic complications. Conclusions: These findings suggest that combining circulating miRNA and inflammatory marker profiles may improve the discrimination of CF from other diabetic neuropathic stages and may support clinical assessment when conventional diagnostic methods remain unclear. However, prospective longitudinal studies are required to determine their value for risk prediction and disease progression. Full article

Background: Exercise modulates the immune system and may enhance anti-cancer activity, offering potential synergy with cancer immunotherapy. Tumours with low immune cell infiltration (“cold” tumours) often respond poorly to immunotherapy and are associated with poor prognosis. Here, we demonstrate that exercise can reshape the immune landscape of tumours across the cold spectrum. Methods: C57BL/6 mice underwent orthotopic implantation of PANC02 (murine pancreatic adenocarcinoma) cells and BALB/c mice underwent intraperitoneal injections of AB-1 (murine mesothelioma) cells. Mice were then divided into groups; exercise with anti-Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 (PD-1), exercise with isotype, no exercise with anti-PD-1 and no exercise with isotype. Treadmill-running was performed for 20 min/day, 4 days/week at a speed of 12 metres/minute. Resistance training consisted of hanging upside down on a wire-mesh screen for 1 min 2 days/week. Flow cytometry was used to measure TME immune populations. Tumour and liver samples were harvested, paraffin wax-embedded/sectioned and analysed using SlideViewer 2.9.0™. A total of 22 healthy volunteers underwent a single bout of high-intensity interval cycling. Blood was collected pre- and post-exercise. Flow cytometry was used to measure leucocyte subpopulations. MSTO-211H (mesothelioma) and PANC-1 (pancreatic cancer) cells were cultured with pre- and post-exercise serum, with/without HSV1716, and viability determined using alamarBlue^®. PANC-1 apoptosis and migration were assessed using caspase-3/7 and scratch assays, respectively. Results: In an orthotopic pancreatic cancer mouse model, combining exercise with immunotherapy significantly increased tumour necrosis and reduced metastatic potential. In both pancreatic cancer and mesothelioma models, this combination remodelled the tumour microenvironment, enhancing cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cell infiltration, upregulating Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 (PD-1), and reducing Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells and regulatory T cells (Tregs). Complementary human studies revealed an acute systemic release of Natural Killer cells and a reduction in Tregs following high-intensity interval exercise in healthy volunteers. Moreover, exercise-conditioned serum from these participants exerted anti-cancer effects on pancreatic cancer and mesothelioma cell lines. Conclusions: Altogether, these findings highlight exercise as a promising adjunct to immunotherapy for poorly immunogenic cancers such as pancreatic cancer and mesothelioma. Full article

Background/Objectives: Platinum resistance in endometrial cancer (EC) remains a significant therapeutic challenge, as tumors frequently bypass apoptotic cell death. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death driven by lipid peroxidation, offers an alternative mechanism to target apoptosis-resistant cancers. This study evaluated whether combined inhibition of ATR and PI3Kα could induce cell death in platinum-resistant EC through apoptotic or ferroptotic pathways. Methods: A panel of EC cell lines, including patient-derived models with varying PIK3CA mutation status and platinum sensitivity, was treated with camonsertib (ATR inhibitor) and inavolisib (PI3Kα inhibitor). Cell death mechanisms were assessed through DNA damage indicators (γH2AX, comet assay, DNA fiber analysis), apoptosis markers (Annexin V, cleaved PARP, cleaved caspase 3), and ferroptosis markers (FerroOrange, xCT expression, redox homeostasis). Results: While monotherapies showed limited activity, dual ATR and PI3Kα inhibition produced additive/synergistic cytotoxicity across all EC cell lines, independent of platinum sensitivity or microsatellite stability status. Mechanistically, the treatment induced genotype-specific cell death: PIK3CA-mutant cells underwent apoptosis driven by catastrophic DNA damage accumulation, whereas PIK3CA-wildtype cells exhibited predominantly ferroptosis characterized by xCT downregulation and redox disruption. Conclusions: Our findings establish dual ATR and PI3Kα inhibition as a genotype-informed therapeutic strategy for platinum-resistant EC. PIK3CA mutation status may influence the mode of cell death, supporting its use as a predictive biomarker for patient stratification in future clinical applications. Full article

Temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJOA) is a degenerative disease characterized by progressive cartilage destruction, and chondrocyte apoptosis plays a critical role in TMJOA progression. As chondrocytes reside in an avascular microenvironment inside the cartilage matrix, energy production via glycolysis is crucial for their survival. This study investigated the role of the key glycolytic enzyme Hexokinase 2 (HK2) in TMJOA pathogenesis and the therapeutic potential of dental pulp stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (DPSC-EVs). In a rat experimental TMJOA model induced by monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) intra-articular injection, we observed a significantly decreased expression of HK2 along with cartilage matrix degradation. In the in vitro study, MIA induced chondrocyte apoptosis with caspase-3 activation, accompanied by impaired glycolytic function. Intervention with DPSC-EVs effectively rescued the expression of HK2 within chondrocytes, leading to a notable restoration of cellular glycolysis. Consequently, DPSC-EV treatment markedly attenuated the progression of TMJOA by reducing chondrocyte apoptosis and improved cartilage integrity. Our findings demonstrated that DPSC-EVs represent a promising cell-free therapeutic strategy for TMJOA, exerting their protective effects by targeting HK2, thereby preserving chondrocyte viability and attenuating osteoarthritis development. Full article

Baloxavir has emerged as a breakthrough anti-influenza therapy, owing to its single-dose regimen and rapid viral clearance. Nevertheless, clinical adverse effects have been reported, while the underlying cellular mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that baloxavir acid rapidly induces mitochondrial morphological abnormalities. This mitochondrial dysfunction subsequently initiates a cascade of cellular events, including G0/G1 cell cycle arrest mediated by the downregulation of cyclin D3 and CDK4, and apoptosis via the Bak-caspase-3 pathway. Co-treatment with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine alleviated baloxavir-induced mitochondrial abnormalities and the decreased expression level of cyclin D3. In contrast, the prodrug baloxavir marboxil exhibited minimal mitochondrial toxicity, underscoring the advantage of the prodrug strategy in reducing adverse effects. Our findings identify mitochondrial impairment as a key mechanism for baloxavir-induced cytotoxicity and provide molecular insights that may help explain its clinical adverse profile. Full article

This systematic review aimed to synthesize experimental evidence on the anticancer effects of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus (L. rhamnosus) and its derivatives against colorectal cancer (CRC) cell models. Eligible studies investigated probiotics, postbiotics, or bioactive compounds derived from L. rhamnosus with an in vitro component; studies relying solely on in vivo animal models, clinical trials, or observational designs were excluded. PubMed and Scopus were searched to identify relevant studies. Risk of bias was assessed using a modified QUIN tool, and extracted data were tabulated. Owing to incomplete numerical data, meta-analysis was not feasible, and the results were synthesized accordingly. Seventeen studies were included. L. rhamnosus and its derivatives reduced CRC cell proliferation, induced apoptosis, and caused cell cycle arrest. Reported mechanisms included upregulation of Bax, caspase-3/9, and p53; downregulation of Bcl-2/Bcl-xl; inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling; reduced invasion and migration; increased reactive oxygen species; and immunomodulatory effects. Key limitations were heterogeneity in interventions, dosages, exposure periods, and cell lines, along with incomplete reporting, which precluded quantitative synthesis. Overall, preclinical evidence indicates multimodal anticancer effects of L. rhamnosus in CRC models; however, standardized reporting and translational research are required. Full article

Background/Objectives: Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory skin disease characterized by painful nodules, abscesses, sinus tracts, and progressive fibrosis. Vascular activation is becoming increasingly acknowledged as an important factor in HS pathogenesis; however, the effects of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) blockade on vascular remodeling in HS remain poorly characterized. This study investigated the impact of TNF-α inhibition by adalimumab (ADA) on endothelial and fibroblast-associated markers in HS lesions. Methods: Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded skin samples from 71 HS patients were analyzed, including treatment-naive (n = 38) and adalimumab-treated (n = 33) cases. Histopathology and immunofluorescence were performed using antibodies against CD31, von Willebrand factor (vWF), α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA), vimentin, Ki-67 (proliferation), and cleaved Caspase-3 (apoptosis). ImageJ software was used to determine the immunoexpression of selected markers and vascular density. Vascular density, assessed as vessel count per mm², was designated as the primary endpoint. Sex-related differences were analyzed as exploratory endpoints. Results: Adalimumab-treated tissue exhibited significantly reduced vascular density (p < 0.01) compared to the treatment-naive group. Conversely, vimentin immunoexpression was significantly higher (p < 0.01) in the adalimumab-treated group. No significant differences were found in endothelial Ki-67 or cleaved Caspase-3 expression between treatment groups, indicating that the observed reduction in vascular density is not associated with direct effects on endothelial cell proliferation or apoptosis, but rather may occur indirectly through attenuation of the pro-angiogenic inflammatory milieu. Exploratory sex-stratified analysis revealed that treatment-naive males had significantly higher endothelial proliferation (Ki-67; p = 0.031) and vimentin expression (p = 0.017) compared to treatment-naive females. In the ADA-treated group, males exhibited significantly lower vascular density (p = 0.036) and higher endothelial apoptosis (p = 0.039) compared to females, whereas females showed a significant increase in vimentin expression following treatment (p = 0.008), suggesting possible sex-dependent differences in vascular remodeling. Conclusions: TNF-α blockade is associated with reduced vascular density, consistent with indirect anti-angiogenic effects, suggesting that adalimumab exerts disease-modifying effects on the microenvironment beyond inflammatory cytokine suppression. Sex-dependent differences in vascular regression underscore the importance of considering sex as a biological variable in HS pathogenesis and treatment response. These results highlight the significance of vascular interactions in HS and support adalimumab as a disease-modifying treatment. These exploratory findings require confirmation in longitudinal studies with paired biopsies. Full article

Whether apoptotic cell death occurs in cerebellar Purkinje cells following transient global ischemia remains unclear. Histologic, immunofluorescent and ultramicroscopic methods were used to assess ischemic outcomes in rats. A pilot study using fluorescence labeling [TUNEL-caspase 3-activated peptide (C3AP)-DAPI] revealed key apoptotic characteristics including nuclear TUNEL-positive, nuclear membrane blebs (NMBs), and cytoplasmic C3AP-positive structures, in addition to transport of TUNEL-positive round structures into cytoplasm and projections in ischemic Purkinje cells but not in controls 4 days after ischemia. A formal follow-up study confirmed that 8% of Purkinje cells 4 days following ischemia exhibited TUNEL-positivity and/or NMBs, while Purkinje cells in controls did not. TUNEL-positive Purkinje cells displayed reduced intensity of Calbindin D28K-ifl/MitoTracker (living cell markers) labeling as compared to controls (p < 0.01). Ultramicroscopic evidence of apoptosis included mitochondrial fragmentation and loss in addition to NMBs and cytosolic deposit of nuclear autophagosomes. Interestingly, 71% of the Purkinje cells exhibited autophagy activity after ischemia. Ultramicroscopic characteristics of survival in ischemic Purkinje cells included a centrally located nucleus, no significant chromatin condensation, stable nuclear and intact cytoplasmic membranes, and normal peripheral spacing of the Purkinje cells. In conclusion, four days after transient global ischemia, cerebellar Purkinje cells exhibited both apoptotic and survival characteristics. Further research warrants investigation of the underlying mechanisms. Full article