Search Results (91)

Background/Objectives: Gymnastic exercises exert positive effects on chronic neck pain. Growing evidence suggests that combining cervical spine exercises with temporomandibular joint (TMJ) relax pads may enhance outcomes on pain, discomfort, and functional limitations. To evaluate the additive effect of silicone TMJ relax pads worn in the molar region during cervical spine exercises on reducing neck pain and selected mobility outcomes. Methods: In this study, 52 sedentary middle-aged adults working on video display unit (VDU) workstations were randomly assigned to two groups. Both groups performed a specific cervical spine exercise program (3 × 3 min/day) for three months. One group used bilateral TMJ relax pads during exercise (EX-RP) while the control group applied the identical exercises without pads (EX). Neck pain intensity was assessed using a one-week pain protocol prior to and after a 12-week intervention. Functional assessments included cervical/thoracic and shoulder mobility tests, and thoracic kyphosis angle measurement. An intention-to-treat analysis with multiple imputations was performed. Results: Data from 47 participants (EX-RP: n = 25; EX: n = 22) were analyzed. Neck pain decreased in both groups, with a significantly greater reduction in the EX-RP compared to the EX group (p = 0.046). Neck Disability Index (NDI) scores improved in both groups (p < 0.001), with no significant difference between groups (p = 0.514). EX-RP showed greater improvements in cervical extension (p = 0.044) and trunk rotation (p = 0.019); however, the results for other mobility outcomes were inconsistent. Conclusions: Adding TMJ relax pads to cervical exercises (alone) favorably affects the pain intensity and might enhance mobility outcomes in individuals with chronic neck pain. TMJ relax pads appear to be a feasible and low-threshold adjunct to exercise-based interventions. Full article

Background and Objectives: Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) is a three-dimensional spinal deformity that requires effective conservative management. Physiotherapeutic scoliosis-specific exercises (PSSE) have been widely used; however, evidence regarding their effectiveness according to therapist supervision intensity remains limited. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of PSSE in patients with AIS and to examine differences according to supervision intensity. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Materials and Methods: RCTs involving patients with AIS (aged 10–18 years, Cobb angle 10–45°) were included if PSSE was applied alone or in combination with other conservative treatments. The primary outcomes were Cobb angle, angle of trunk rotation (ATR), and Scoliosis Research Society-22 (SRS-22). Effect sizes were calculated as standardized mean differences (SMDs) using a random-effects model. Subgroup analyses were performed according to supervision intensity. Results: A total of 10 RCTs (n = 600) were included. The pooled analysis demonstrated that PSSE significantly reduced Cobb angle (SMD = −0.52, 95% CI −0.79 to −0.25, p < 0.001) and ATR (SMD = −1.01, 95% CI −1.53 to −0.48, p < 0.001) compared with control interventions. In subgroup analyses, fully supervised interventions showed larger and more consistent effects, with statistically significant improvements in both Cobb angle (SMD = −0.70) and ATR (SMD = −1.33), whereas hybrid approaches did not demonstrate statistically significant effects. However, statistical support for subgroup differences was stronger for ATR than for Cobb angle. SRS-22 scores showed a trend toward improvement but did not reach statistical significance. Moderate to high heterogeneity was observed in some analyses, and risk-of-bias concerns were identified in several studies. Conclusions: PSSE may be an effective conservative intervention for improving structural curvature and trunk rotation in patients with AIS. Subgroup findings suggest that closer therapist supervision may be associated with more favorable effects, particularly for ATR; however, these findings should be interpreted cautiously because of heterogeneity and potential risk of bias. Large-scale, high-quality trials are warranted to confirm the magnitude and long-term sustainability of clinical effects. Full article

Background: Sciatic scoliosis is a nonstructural, compensatory spinal deformity secondary to lumbar disc herniation. In adolescents and young adults, sciatic scoliosis is frequently misdiagnosed as adolescent idiopathic scoliosis due to the low prevalence of lumbar disc herniation in this demographic. Early clinical suspicion is essential, as radiographic features, particularly minimal or absent vertebral rotation on standing radiographs, help distinguish sciatic scoliosis from structural curves such as adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Key differentiating features include painful scoliosis, a highly positive straight leg raise test, and minimal or absent vertebral rotation on standing radiographs. Delayed diagnosis or inappropriate management may result in residual deformity, highlighting the importance of early surgical decompression. Despite recognition for decades, the literature is fragmented, largely composed of case reports, small series, and retrospective studies, with heterogeneous definitions, radiological assessments, and outcome measures. Objective: Provide a comprehensive, up-to-date systematic synthesis of the clinical presentation, radiological characteristics, management strategies, and outcomes of lumbar disc herniation-associated sciatic scoliosis. Methods: Thirteen studies evaluating conventional open discectomy and minimally invasive endoscopic procedures (FEID/PELD) were included. Data on demographics, surgical approach, clinical improvement (VAS, ODI, Macnab), and radiographic correction (Cobb angle, trunk list, sagittal alignment) were extracted and synthesized. Results: Surgical decompression consistently leads to clinical improvement. Trunk list and coronal deformity were rapidly corrected, with resolution rates ≥ 85% within 6 months across most series. Both open and endoscopic approaches were effective, with minimally invasive techniques offering advantages in tissue preservation and recovery. Conclusions: Sciatic Scoliosis is a reversible, nonstructural deformity that responds reliably to surgical decompression. Accurate recognition, particularly in adolescents and young adults, and timely intervention targeting the underlying nerve root compression are critical for optimal outcomes. This review consolidates fragmented evidence, providing a comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge. Full article

Lower-limb exoskeleton robots play a pivotal role in rehabilitation medicine and assistive augmentation, where precise dynamic modelling and trajectory tracking control are fundamental to effective assistance. Existing models predominantly focus on hip and knee rotational degrees of freedom, with insufficient attention to ankle dynamics and pelvic translation. To address these limitations, this paper establishes a sagittal-plane dynamic model comprising nine generalised coordinates, treating the human lower limb and exoskeleton as an integrated coupled system. A seven-segment kinematic model encompassing the trunk, bilateral thighs, shanks, and feet is constructed via a modified Denavit–Hartenberg parameter method, and dynamic equations are derived using Lagrangian formulation. Three control strategies—PD control, PD with gravity compensation, and the computed torque method—are designed and evaluated through simulations using gait data from five subjects (two self-collected, three from a public dataset) acquired via Vicon motion capture. Results demonstrate that the computed torque method achieves a joint angle tracking root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.59°, representing an 86.3% improvement over conventional PD control, while maintaining a low control torque RMS of 4.44 N·m. The controller exhibits stable tracking performance across walking speeds of 0.4–1.45 m/s, validating the effectiveness of the proposed model and control strategies. Full article

Background and Objectives: Physiotherapeutic Scoliosis-Specific Exercises (PSSE) are recognized treatment methods for idiopathic scoliosis, focused on correcting three-dimensional postural abnormalities. Objective indices such as Angle of Trunk Rotation (ATR), Anterior Trunk Symmetry Index (ATSI), and Posterior Trunk Symmetry Index (POTSI) enable precise assessment of clinical changes, while the Trunk Appearance Perception Scale (TAPS) reflects the patient’s subjective perception of their posture. Combining these data allows for a comprehensive assessment of the effects of therapy after intensive 5-day inpatient rehabilitation. We aimed to assess the improvement in the patients’ clinical appearance and compare objective and subjective trunk assessment indicators after intensive 5-day inpatient rehabilitation, treated by PSSE, according to the Functional Individual Therapy of Scoliosis (FITS) Method. Materials and Methods: This retrospective study included 75 patients with idiopathic scoliosis who participated in a 5-day inpatient rehabilitation, treated by FITS Method. The average age was 13.5 years, and 63% of the girls were after menarche. The mean Cobb angle was 27.41° in single-curve scoliosis and 31.03° in double-curve scoliosis (31.24° in the thoracic spine, 30.82° in the lumbar spine), Risser test 2, and ATR was 7.1° in the thoracic spine and 4.6° in the lumbar spine. Forty-nine patients wore a brace. At the beginning and end of inpatient care, objective assessments were performed, including ATR at the peak of the scoliosis using the Adams test and photoregistration of the trunk in the front and back standing positions—ATSI and POTSI. A subjective assessment was also performed using the TAPS. Results: A statistically significant difference was demonstrated after therapy in the ATSI (p < 0.001) and POTSI (p = 0.008) values. A reduction in the ATR in the thoracic spine was observed (p < 0.001). The TAPS questionnaire demonstrated a statistically significant difference in the values of all indicators measured before and after therapy: in the frontal plane SET 1 (p = 0.002), in the transverse plane SET 2 (p = 0.042), and in the frontal plane SET 3 (p = 0.028). A statistically significant negative correlation was demonstrated between objective and subjective indicators after therapy: ATR Th vs. TAPS-SET 2 (−0.45) (p < 0.001) and ATSI vs. SET 3 (−0.29) (p = 0.011). Conclusions: The subjective assessment of trunk appearance correlates with the objective assessment, except for SET 1 vs. POTSI. Patients who noticed a change in their posture can expect confirmation in objective clinical tests. FITS Method positively influences the improvement of subjective and objective assessments of idiopathic scoliosis patients during the short term of intensive care. Full article

(1) Background: Idiopathic scoliosis is a three-dimensional deformity, yet clinical and research decision-making still relies largely on radiographic Cobb angle measurements. As a radiation-free alternative, clinical assessment of transverse and sagittal plane deformities has gained importance. This study evaluated the concurrent validity and intra- and interrater reproducibility of continuous measurements of rib hump, thoracic kyphosis, and lumbar lordosis obtained using a smartphone application in adolescents with spinal deformities. (2) Methods: Adolescents aged 10–17 years with scoliosis (>10° Cobb) or hyperkyphosis (>50° Cobb) were recruited. Continuous measurements of angle of trunk rotation (ATR) during the Adams forward bend test and in standing position, as well as sagittal profile, were collected using the ISICO app mounted on a standardized plastic tool. Concurrent validity was assessed against a scoliometer using Spearman correlation, root mean square error, and Bland–Altman analysis, while reproducibility was evaluated using intraclass correlation coefficients, standard error of measurement, and minimal detectable change. (3) Results: Thirty-two adolescents were included for validation and intrarater analyses and 34 for interrater analyses. ATR measured during the Adams test showed very high correlation with the scoliometer and minimal bias, while standing ATR showed moderate correlation. Reliability was excellent for rib hump during forward bending and moderate for sagittal parameters, with the lowest values observed for lumbar lordosis. (4) Conclusions: These findings support the clinical use of continuous app-based ATR assessment and suggest that sagittal measurements may be useful with appropriate examiner training. Full article

Background: Wrist–forearm orthoses used during self-feeding may alter scapular and shoulder mechanics and increase proximal load, but this has not been quantified. Methods: Seventeen right-hand-dominant young adults performed a spoon-feeding task under free and restricted conditions. A thermoplastic wrist–forearm orthosis positioned the wrist at approximately 30° dorsiflexion at rest and was intended to constrain wrist motion during the task without rigidly immobilizing forearm pronation–supination. Three-dimensional kinematics (scapula, shoulder, trunk, and distal joints) were recorded using inertial sensors, and surface electromyography was obtained from the upper trapezius, middle deltoid, and biceps brachii. Maximum joint angles and mean %MVC over the feeding cycle were compared between conditions (α = 0.05). Results: The restriction condition resulted in a more anteriorly tilted and downwardly rotated scapular posture, greater shoulder abduction and external rotation, and increased thoracic flexion, whereas maximum distal joint angles did not differ, suggesting a functional distal constraint rather than rigid immobilization. Middle deltoid and biceps brachii activities increased significantly, with a nonsignificant trend toward higher upper trapezius activation. Conclusions: In healthy young adults, limited wrist motion and forearm rotation during spoon-feeding were associated with altered proximal coordination, including scapular, shoulder/trunk, and proximal muscle changes. Full article

This study aimed to explore the feasibility of using OpenCap with a lab-based multi-camera motion capture (MOCAP) system and to evaluate the influence of camera configurations on the trunk and lower-limb kinematic accuracy for athletic movements. Six top-level female football players performed drop jump (DJ) and sidecut (SC) tasks while their motion was recorded synchronously by marker- and video-based cameras. Lower-limb and trunk joint angles, as well as pelvis translations and rotations, obtained with three camera configurations—two, four, and eight cameras—were compared with the marker-based reference. Statistical parametric mapping repeated measures ANOVAs revealed significant differences in kinematic waveforms, decreasing from 16 and 14 degrees of freedom in the two-camera configuration during DJ and SC, respectively, to 9 degrees of freedom in the eight-camera configuration. Improvements in root mean square error were also observed in pelvis anterior–posterior translation and pelvis rotation in both tasks; vertical translations, right ankle dorsiflexion, and inversion in DJ; lumbar bending, and right hip rotation in SC. The result suggested that using a lab-based MOCAP system with more cameras could modestly enhance accuracy and provide several advantages, e.g., broader camera coverage. However, further investigation is needed to ensure the differences are biomechanically meaningful. Full article

Background: Conservative treatment for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) includes physiotherapeutic scoliosis-specific exercises (PSSE) and bracing. One PSSE-based approach is the Rigo Concept, which emphasizes three-dimensional (3D) postural correction, expansion techniques, muscle activation, and postural integration. Recently, increasing interest has been directed toward incorporating whole-body vibration (WBV) into physiotherapy. WBV is a reflex-based neuromuscular training method shown to improve muscle strength and power and enhance proprioception, which may be beneficial in the treatment of AIS. Objectives: This study aimed to assess the effects of physiotherapy based on the Rigo Concept combined with WBV on sagittal spinal curvatures, trunk symmetry, and the angle of trunk rotation (ATR) in girls with AIS. Methods: This prospective controlled experimental study included 45 girls (12.8 ± 1.7 years) with AIS who participated in a 5-day physiotherapy session based on the Rigo Concept. Of these, 22 participants additionally received WBV using a Galileo Med 35 platform (3 × 3 min/day, frequency 25 Hz, peak-to-peak displacement 2 mm), forming the Rigo–WBV group. The remaining participants received the Rigo Concept alone (Rigo–ONLY). Participants were allocated to the study groups using a quasi-random method based on the order of enrollment. ATR was defined as the primary endpoint, while thoracic kyphosis, lumbar lordosis, sacral slope, coronal balance, and scapular position were considered secondary outcomes. All outcomes were assessed before and after the intervention. Results: Neither the Rigo–WBV nor the Rigo–ONLY intervention affected sagittal spinal curvatures (p > 0.05). Coronal balance improved in both the Rigo–WBV (Δ 0.5 cm, p < 0.001) and Rigo–ONLY groups (Δ 0.4 cm, p = 0.005). In the Rigo–ONLY group, an improvement in scapular height asymmetry was observed (Δ 1.1°, p = 0.010). Following the Rigo–WBV intervention, ATR decreased in the main thoracic (Δ 1.9°, p < 0.001), thoracolumbar (Δ 1.9°, p < 0.001), lumbar curve (Δ 2.1°, p < 0.001), and pelvis (Δ 1.0°, p < 0.001). In the Rigo–ONLY group, a reduction in ATR was observed only in the thoracolumbar curve (Δ 1.9°, p < 0.001). Conclusions: In terms of clinical and postural changes, five-day physiotherapy based on the Rigo Concept, with or without WBV, does not influence sagittal spinal curvatures in girls with AIS. Both interventions may improve coronal balance. Moreover, the Rigo Concept combined with WBV may reduce ATR. Full article

Background: Seated shot put is a core Paralympic event in which lower-limb-impaired athletes generate throwing power primarily through the trunk and upper limbs. The configuration of the throwing frame may influence performance stability and biomechanics. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of two seated orientations on throwing performance, kinematics, and within-subject reliability in a Paralympic F55 athlete using markerless motion capture. Methods: A para-athlete F55-class (age: 37 years; body mass: 93 kg; height: 180 cm; training experience: 20 years) performed 20 throws (10 per seat position: perpendicular and 54.5° rotated). Kinematic data were recorded with an eight-camera, 250 Hz markerless motion capture system. Variables included throw distance, trial time, release angle, wrist acceleration and velocity, and torso angular velocities. Reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), standard error of measurement (SEM), coefficient of variation (CV%), Bland–Altman analysis, and ROC curve discrimination. Results: Throw distance did not differ significantly between positions (p = 0.1086), but trial duration was significantly shorter in the rotated position (p = 0.0114). Most kinematic variables showed poor-to-moderate reliability (ICC = −0.51 to 0.40). Bland–Altman and ROC analyses indicated stable performance measures but higher variability in torso motion, with torso rotation (AUC = 0.72) showing the strongest discriminative ability. Conclusions: Seated orientation minimally affected performance but influenced trunk kinematics and reliability, emphasizing the need for individualized biomechanical assessment in Paralympic shot put training. Full article

Background/Objectives: Three-dimensional (3D) spinal and pelvic alignment plays a critical role in maintaining anticipatory postural control. However, the extent to which specific multiplanar alignment parameters influence feedforward activation of trunk stabilizing muscles remains unclear. This study aimed to determine whether sagittal, coronal, and transverse postural deviations predict anticipatory muscle activation patterns during externally induced perturbations. Methods: Surface electromyography (EMG) was recorded from bilateral external oblique (EO), lumbar multifidus (LM), and transversus abdominis/internal oblique (TrA/IO) muscles in 100 asymptomatic young adults (18–25 years) performing dynamic right-leg raises. Spinal and pelvic alignment was quantified using rasterstereography, including sagittal and coronal imbalance, pelvic tilt, torsion, rotation, vertebral rotation, and spinal curvatures (kyphotic and lordotic angles). Regression models examined how these parameters predicted EMG onset latency and activation amplitude. Results: Distinct alignment patterns were associated with altered anticipatory control. Increased vertebral rotation and greater sagittal imbalance were linked to delayed activation of EO and LM, while asymmetries in pelvic torsion and tilt were related to less efficient TrA/IO recruitment. Conversely, more balanced spinal curvatures corresponded with earlier, more coordinated muscle activation across the trunk. Conclusions: Multiplanar spinal and pelvic alignment significantly influences anticipatory neuromuscular strategies. Identifying how specific postural deviations disrupt feedforward activation provides a functional basis for targeted rehabilitation programs aiming to restore alignment, enhance trunk stability, and prevent recurrent postural dysfunction. Full article

Background/Objectives: Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) is a three-dimensional deformity of the spine that can negatively impact on quality of life, pulmonary function, and body image. Its conservative management includes various interventions, among which the Schroth method stands out. This approach is based on three-dimensional corrective exercises and rotational breathing. This review aimed to analyze the effectiveness of the Schroth method, applied either alone or in combination with other conservative therapies, on variables such as Cobb angle, angle of trunk rotation (ATR), pulmonary function, and health-related quality of life in patients with AIS. Methods: A scientific literature search was conducted using the PubMed database. We searched for randomized controlling trials (RCTs), systematic reviews, and meta-analyses reported in English from 2020 to 2025. Different combinations of the terms and MeSH terms “adolescent”, “idiopathic”, “scoliosis”, and “Schroth” connected with various Boolean operators. Results: Overall, 82 articles were reviewed from the selected database. After removing duplicated papers and title/abstract screening, 13 studies were included in our review. The results showed that the Schroth method proved effective in reducing the Cobb angle and ATR, particularly in patients with mild curves and in early stages of skeletal growth. Improvements were also observed in health-related quality of life and aesthetic perception, and to a lesser extent, in pulmonary function. Moreover, therapeutic adherence and treatment continuity were important to maintaining long-term benefits. Conclusions: The Schroth method could be an effective treatment associated with orthopedic treatment, yielding satisfactory results. Its implementation requires structured programs, professional supervision, and strategies to enhance therapeutic adherence. Nevertheless, to validate its long-term effectiveness, we need more homogeneous studies with longer follow-up durations. Full article

Background: Prader–Willi syndrome (PWS) is a rare syndrome that presents in about 1 in 25,000 newborns. It is characterized by a typical phenotype that includes short stature, hypothyroidism and hypogonadism, cognitive and developmental delays, slow growth, obesity, and, in most patients, scoliosis. These patients generally have a life expectancy of less than 60 years, with respiratory distress being the leading cause of death; scoliosis is not the primary cause of these respiratory problems, but may contribute to their worsening. Therefore, accurately diagnosing and managing scoliosis is crucial for improving the life expectancy of PWS patients. Previous studies have shown a limited effectiveness of bracing due to a combination of factors, including generalized hypotonia, rapid early progression, poor brace compliance, and thus frequent progression to surgical intervention. Case presentation: This case report presents a 20-year follow-up of a female patient with PWS. Multiple clinical parameters were collected at every follow-up appointment. Throughout this extended observation and treatment period, the patient used two push-up braces of different rigidity, resulting in improvements in the thoracic and lumbar Cobb angle and the thoracic angle of trunk rotation. The treatment protocol was based on a shared decision with the parents and the patient. Conclusions: This case demonstrates how consistent and thorough follow-up can result in a successful, conservative treatment of a severe secondary scoliosis, thereby preventing the need for a major surgical procedure during growth. Full article

Existing clinical assessments of Parkinson’s disease (PD) primarily focus on stratifying symptom severity or progression rate, which limits their ability to capture changes in functional mobility—an important factor in evaluating rehabilitation outcomes. To address this gap, we developed a novel methodology, the Functional Mobility Assessment for Parkinson’s (FMA-P), which integrates motion capture and pressure-sensitive gait analysis to explore key aspects of functional mobility. Study 1. To develop the FMA-P, we conducted a pilot study involving 12 individuals with PD and 12 age-matched healthy controls, who each completed the FMA-P sequence three times. The sequence included the following tasks: rising from a chair, walking through a doorway, turning, bending to pick up and place an object, and returning to a seated position. Results from Study 1 demonstrated that the FMA-P is a sensitive tool for identifying functional impairments in PD. In particular, significant differences between people with Parkinson’s (PwP) and controls were observed during chair rise (higher peak trunk inclination, p = 0.006; lower mean trunk jerk, p = 0.003) and turning task (longer task duration, p = 0.026 and lower mean heel strike angle, p = 0.007), providing critical insights into postural stability. Study 2. To assess changes in functional mobility over time, we conducted a 12-week repeated-measures intervention study with 12 participants with PD. Results from Study 2 indicated notable improvements in turning stability and balance. Participants demonstrated reduced turning time (p = 0.006) and increased yaw rotation in the head (p = 0.001), trunk (p = 0.002), and pelvis (p = 0.012). In contrast, no significant changes were observed in standard clinical measures (i.e., Timed Up and Go and task duration). The FMA-P offers fine-grained insights into movement quality, making it a valuable tool for early diagnosis, monitoring intervention efficacy, and guiding rehabilitation strategies in individuals with PD. Full article

Pelvis and trunk counter-rotation are key factors known to effect throwing arm kinematics in baseball pitching, where energy or momentum is transferred from the lower extremities through to the trunk during the pitching cycle. The purpose of this study was to retrospectively analyze previously recorded motion capture data of 19 skilled competitive pitchers to test the a priori hypothesis whether different stride lengths affect transverse pelvis and trunk biomechanics. A blinded randomized crossover design was used where pitchers threw two simulated games at ±25% from desired stride length (DSL), respective of overstride (OS) and under-stride (US). Variables of interest included pelvic–trunk separation (PTS) angle or degree of uncoupling and proximal plyometric effect (PPE) or ratio between trunk–pelvis angular velocities, as surrogate measures of rotational and elastic energy transfer. Paired t-tests were used to compare across stride conditions. A one-way ANOVA with a Bonferroni post hoc analysis demonstrated stride lengths differed statistically, (DSL vs. OS p = 0.006), (DSL vs. US, p < 0.001), and (US vs. OS, p < 0.001). Despite the statistically different stride lengths, fastball velocities tracked with radar were consistent. No significant differences within and across innings pitched between OS and OS conditions were found. The ±25% stride length changes influenced temporal parameters within the pitching cycle. Shorter stride elicited by early SFC reduced time during the Generation phase and extended the Brace-Transfer duration (p < 0.001). Statistically different transverse pelvis and trunk kinematics at hallmark events and phases consequently influenced pelvic–trunk separation and proximal plyometrics. During the Generation (PKH-SFC) and Brace-Transfer (SFC-MER) phases, the pelvis and trunk were significantly more externally rotated (p < 0.001) with shorter strides, concomitant with less separation at the instant of SFC and the Generation phase with greater peak proximal plyometrics effect ratios peak during throwing arm acceleration, indicative of greater contribution of trunk angular velocity (p < 0.05). Greater transverse trunk angular velocities relative to the pelvis late in double support necessitates the throwing arm to “catch up” from a position of greater arm lag, which compromises the dynamic and passive stabilizers. In conclusion, stride length alters pitching biomechanics and timing of peak pelvic–trunk separation and trunk angular velocity relative to the pelvis. Increased shoulder and elbow tensile stress is to be expected, consequently increasing risk for injury. Full article