Search Results (105)

The genus Panax contains traditional herbs that have been widely used in traditional medicine. The active constituents, collectively known as ginsenosides, are well characterized in the most representative species, P. notoginseng. However, the major bioactive chemical constituents of P. stipuleanatus together with P. vietnamensis are relatively less studied. In this study, an untargeted metabolomic analysis was performed in P. notoginseng, P. stipuleanatus, and P. vietnamensis using root and leaf organs. Further metabolomic differences in P. stipuleanatus were compared with those of the two most prevalent species. The analysis results revealed tissue-specific qualitative and quantitative metabolic differences in each species. Several differentially accumulated metabolites were enriched in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, including the biosynthesis of ginsenosides I. The ginsenosides Rb1, Rf, Rg1, Rh1, Rh8, and notoginsenosides E, M, and N had a higher abundance level in the roots of both P. notoginseng and P. vietnamensis. In P. stipuleanatus, the accumulation of potentially important ginsenosides is mainly found in the leaf. In particular, the dammarane-type ginsenosides Rb3, Rb1, Mx, and F2 as well as the notoginsenosides A, Fe, Fa, Fd, L, and N were identified to have a higher accumulation in the leaf. The strong positive correlation network of different ginsenosides probably enhanced secondary metabolism in each species. The comparative analysis revealed a significant differential accumulation of metabolites in the leaves of both species. The various compounds of dammarane-type ginsenoside, such as Rb1, Rg1, Rg6, Rh8, Rh10, Rh14, and majoroside F2, had a significantly higher concentration level in the leaves of P. stipuleanatus. In addition, several notoginsenoside compounds such as A, R1, Fe, Fd, and Ft1 showed a higher abundance in the leaf. These results show that the abundance level of major ginsenosides is significant in P. stipuleanatus and provides an important platform to improve the ginsenoside quality of Panax species. Full article

Microbial fermentation technology has emerged as a pivotal approach for enhancing ginseng efficacy through the transformation of active ingredient molecular structures. This paper reviews the impact of microbial fermentation on the structure–activity relationship of ginseng bioactive compounds and advances in its application. Bibliometric analysis indicates that Panax species (Panax ginseng, Panax notoginseng) are primarily fermented using lactic acid bacteria and Aspergillus spp., with research predominantly focused on conversion efficiency to rare ginsenosides (Compound K, Rg3, and Rh2). Specifically, this review details the biotransformation pathways of these rare ginsenosides and the resultant bioactivity enhancements. Additionally, it summarizes the effects of other microorganisms, such as fungal fruiting bodies, on additional ginseng constituents like polysaccharides and polyphenols. Microbial fermentation has been successfully implemented in functional products, including ginseng vinegar, wine, and fermented milk. This review subsequently examines these applications, emphasizing fermentation’s potential to enhance product functionality. However, challenges remain in strain screening, process standardization, and analysis of multi-component synergistic mechanisms. In summary, this review synthesizes recent advancements in understanding the mechanisms of microbial fermentation on ginseng and its translational applications in functional foods and pharmaceuticals. Full article

In recent years, cosmetic science has adopted a more integrative approach to skincare, in which sensory experience and psychophysical well-being are increasingly valued. In this context, plant-derived ingredients, particularly those from officinal species, are gaining attention for their multifunctional bioactivities. This review explores a curated selection of medicinal plants widely used or emerging in dermocosmetics, highlighting their phytochemical composition, mechanisms of action, and experimental support. A narrative literature review was conducted using databases such as PubMed and Scopus, targeting studies on topical cosmetic applications. Results show that many officinal plants, including Camellia sinensis, Panax ginseng, and Mentha piperita, offer antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, photoprotective, and anti-aging benefits. Less conventional species, such as Drosera ramentacea and Kigelia africana, demonstrated depigmenting and wound-healing potential. In particular, bioactive constituents like flavonoids, iridoids, saponins, and polyphenols act on key skin targets such as COX-2, MMPs, tyrosinase, and the Nrf2 pathway. These findings underscore the potential of botanical extracts to serve as effective, natural, and multifunctional agents in modern skincare. While only Mentha piperita is currently recognized as a traditional herbal medicinal product for dermatological use, this research supports the broader dermocosmetic integration of these species. Full article

The Araliaceae family has significant economic and medicinal value. However, the phylogenetic relationships and the expression patterns of key genes of the active triterpenoid substance within this family are still unclear. In this study, we employed comparative transcriptomics to analyze the transcriptomes of 19 species from 11 genera of Araliaceae, aiming to elucidate the evolutionary history of the family and the expression patterns of key genes in the ginsenoside biosynthesis pathway. Our results divide Araliaceae into two subfamilies: Aralioideae and Hydrocotyloideae. Aralioideae is further classified into three groups: the Aralia–Panax group, the Polyscias–Pseudopanax group, and the Asian Palmate group. PhyloNet analysis reveals that the common ancestor of Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, and Panax japonicus was an allopolyploid, likely resulting from hybridization between Panax notoginseng and Panax pseudoginseng. Additionally, all Aralioideae species underwent the pg-β event, which may be critical for ginsenoside biosynthesis. We discovered that Panax species exhibit distinct expression patterns of key enzyme genes (β-AS, DDS, CYP450, UGTs) compared to other Araliaceae species. These enzyme genes show independent evolutionary lineages in gene trees, suggesting unique functional adaptations that enable Panax species to efficiently synthesize ginsenosides. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the conservation and utilization of Araliaceae germplasm resources. Full article

Among medicinal plants, the Panax genus (family: Araliaceae) includes plant species widely recognized for their multi-faceted pharmacological attributes. The triterpenoids, designated as ginsenosides, are increasingly recognized as drug-like molecules in cancer therapies due to their therapeutic role in restricting tumor invasion, proliferation, metastasis, apoptosis, and drug resistance reversal in tumor cells. In the nanobiotechnological era, nano-delivery systems provide feasible solutions to address bottlenecks associated with traditional drug delivery methods (low bioavailability, instability in the gastrointestinal tract, high dosage requirements, side effects, poor absorption, and incomplete drug utilization in the body). The dedicated efforts for precise and effective treatment have directed the development of ginsenoside-based nano-delivery systems to achieve potent anticancer efficacies and address the limitations in ginseng pharmacokinetics, facilitating drug development trials. Studies into ginseng pharmacokinetics showed a remarkable prolonged clearance and free drug levels of ~15% (ginsenoside RB1 nanoparticles) in mice (compared to only ~5% for ginsenosides) and better antitumor efficacies, demonstrating key success in ginseng biotechnology for drug development. Delving into the nanobiotechnological interventions in ginseng-derived therapeutics, this study summarizes current advances and achievements, particularly in cancer treatment, tackles existing gaps, focuses on feasible solutions, and examines prospects of translational success. Full article

Wild-simulated ginseng (WSG, Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is the most important medicinal plant naturally cultivated in the forestry environment. The growth and active component content of WSG can be influenced by various environmental factors, such as climate conditions, physiognomy, soil properties, and soil bacterial structure. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the growth characteristics of WSG and the soil bacterial community living in a rhizosphere environment. Experimental subjects were 7- and 13-year-old WSG cultivated in the central region (Yeongju) of Korea. The growth characteristics of WSG, divided into aerial parts, root parts, and weight parts, were measured. Rhizome length was significantly higher for 13-year-old WSG, while the number of rootlets was higher for 7-year-old WSG. As a result of analyzing the soil bacterial communities of WSG cultivation sites using next-generation sequencing (NGS), Proteobacteria and Holophagae were found to be the dominant species in the phylum level and class level, respectively. Rhizome length was positively correlated with Bacteroidetes at the phylum level, but it was negatively correlated with Thermoleophilia and Gemmatimonadetes at the class level. Pedospharae showed a negative correlation with the number of leaflets and petiole length, while Clostridia showed a positive correlation with the number of rootlets. The growth of WSG might vary depending on the environment in which it is cultivated. It is especially affected by soil properties and soil bacterial communities. Therefore, in future studies, it will be necessary to isolate and identify soil microorganisms living in WSG cultivation sites and then confirm their growth-promoting effects on WSG. Full article

Colorectal cancer (CRC) poses a significant health burden worldwide and necessitates novel treatment approaches with fewer side effects than conventional chemotherapy. Many natural compounds have been tested as possible cancer treatments. Plants in the genus Panax have been widely studied due to their therapeutic potential for various diseases such as inflammatory disorders and cancers. Extracts from plants of genus Panax activate upstream signals, including those related to autophagy and the generation of reactive oxygen species, to induce intrinsic apoptosis in CRC cells. The root extract of Panax notoginseng (P. notoginseng) regulated the gut microbiota to enhance the T-cell-induced immune response against CRC. Protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenosides, especially Rh2, Rg3, Rb1, and Rb2, significantly reduced proliferation of CRC cells and tumor size in a xenograft mouse model, as well as targeting programmed death (PD)-1 to block the immune checkpoint of CRC cells. Moreover, modified nanocarriers with ginsenosides upregulated drug efficacy, showing that ginsenosides can also be utilized as drug carriers. An increasing body of studies has demonstrated the potential of the genus Panax in curing CRC. Ginsenosides are promising active compounds in the genus Panax, which can also support the activity of conventional cancer therapies. Full article

Fusarium species are among the most significant pathogens causing root rot in Panax notoginseng. In this study, a strain of Trichoderma hamatum was isolated from the rhizosphere soil of P. notoginseng and subjected to whole-genome sequencing. Plate confrontation experiments were conducted to investigate the antagonistic effects of T. hamatum against Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, and Fusarium acutatum, the primary Fusarium species causing root rot. Whole-genome sequencing revealed 10,774 predicted genes in T. hamatum, of which 454 were associated with carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) involved in fungal cell wall degradation. Additionally, 11 biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) associated with antimicrobial production were identified, highlighting the biocontrol potential of T. hamatum. In plate confrontation experiments, T. hamatum showed substantial inhibition rates of 68.07%, 70.63%, and 66.12% against F. oxysporum, F. solani, and F. acutatum, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy suggested the hyperparasitism of T. hamatum against F. solani, which was characterized by spore production that adhered to the pathogen, thereby inhibiting its growth. These findings provide a theoretical foundation to enhance understanding of the biological control mechanisms of T. hamatum, supporting its potential applications in sustainable agriculture. Full article

Gintonin, a non-saponin glycolipoprotein from Panax ginseng, acts as a lysophosphatidic acid ligand. However, its anticancer effects, especially in melanoma, remain unclear. This study investigated the anti-proliferative effects and intracellular signaling mechanisms of a gintonin-enriched fraction (GEF) from Panax ginseng in human melanoma cell lines. In vitro, GEF treatment significantly inhibited cell proliferation, reduced clonogenic potential, and delayed wound healing in melanoma cells. Flow cytometry and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) staining showed that GEF induced apoptosis, as evidenced by increased apoptotic cell populations and nuclear changes. GEF also caused cell cycle arrest in the G₁ phase for A375 cells and the G₂/M phase for A2058 cells. It triggered apoptotic signaling via activation of caspase-3, -9, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage, and downregulation of B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2). GEF treatment also raised intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and mitochondrial stress, which were mitigated by N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), an ROS inhibitor. In vivo, GEF suppressed tumor growth in A375- and A2058-xenografted mice without toxicity. These findings suggest that GEF from Panax ginseng has potential antitumor effects in melanoma by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, presenting a promising therapeutic avenue. Full article

Oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) affects the aging process and increases the likelihood of several diseases. A new frontier in its prevention includes bioactive foods and natural extracts that can be introduced by the diet in combination with specific probiotics. Among the natural compounds that we can introduce by the diet, Panax ginseng extract is one of the most utilized since it contains a vast number of bioactive molecules such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and polysaccharides that have been shown to possess antioxidant, anti-ageing, anti-cancer, and immunomodulatory activity. In this work, the ability of a P. ginseng extract in combination with a probiotic formulation was taken into consideration to evaluate its effects on the modulation of in vitro reconstructed human gut microbiota (HGM). After evaluating the growth of the individual strains on the ginseng extract, we tested the in vitro reconstructed HGM setup (probiotics, minimal core, and whole community) using 2% w/v ginseng as the only carbon and energy source. The probiotic strains reached the highest growth, while the minimal core and the whole community showed almost the same growth. Specifically, the presence of the ginseng extract favors L. plantarum and B. animalis subsp. lactis among the probiotics, while B. cellulosilyticus prevails over the other strains in the minimal core condition. In the presence of both probiotics and minimal core strains, L. plantarum, B. animalis subsp. lactis, and B. cellulosilyticus reach the highest growth values. The bacterial metabolites produced during ginseng extract fermentation in the three conditions were administered to human intestinal epithelial cells (HT-29) to investigate a potential antioxidant effect. Remarkably, our results highlighted a significant reduction in the total ROS and a slightly reduction in the cytosolic superoxide anion content in HT-29 cells treated with bacterial metabolites deriving from ginseng extract fermentation by the whole community. Full article

Mitochondrial homeostasis is crucial for maintaining cellular energy production and preventing oxidative stress, which is essential for overall cellular function and longevity. Mitochondrial damage and dysfunction often occur concomitantly in myocardial ischemia–reperfusion injury (MIRI). Notoginsenoside R1 (NGR1), a unique saponin from the traditional Chinese medicine Panax notoginseng, has been shown to alleviate MIRI in previous studies, though its precise mechanism remains unclear. This study aimed to elucidate the mechanisms of NGR1 in maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis in hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) H9c2 cells. The results showed that NGR1 pretreatment effectively increased cell survival rates post-H/R, reduced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage, and mitigated cell damage. Further investigation into mitochondria revealed that NGR1 alleviated mitochondrial structural damage, improved mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pore (mPTP) persistence, and prevented mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) depolarization. Additionally, NGR1 pretreatment enhanced ATP levels, increased the activity of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes I–V after H/R, and reduced excessive mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mitoROS) production, thereby protecting mitochondrial function. Further analysis indicated that NGR1 upregulated the expression of mitochondrial biogenesis-related proteins (PGC-1α, Nrf1, Nrf2) and mitochondrial fusion proteins (Opa1, Mfn1, Mfn2), while downregulating mitochondrial fission proteins (Fis1, Drp1) and reducing mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy) levels, as well as the expression of mitophagy-related proteins (Pink1, Parkin, BNIP3) post-H/R. Therefore, this study showed that NGR1 can maintain mitochondrial homeostasis by regulating mitophagy, mitochondrial fission–fusion dynamics, and mitochondrial biogenesis, thereby alleviating H9c2 cell H/R injury and protecting cardiomyocytes. Full article

Aging is a complex process that involves many physiological mechanisms that gradually impair normal cellular and tissue function and make us more susceptible to diseases and death. It is influenced by intrinsic factors like cellular function and extrinsic factors like pollution and UV radiation. Recent scientific studies show that traditional plant-based foods and supplements can help mitigate the effects of aging. Nutraceuticals, which are dietary supplements with medicinal properties, have gained attention for their ability to prevent chronic and age-related diseases. Antioxidants like flavonoids, carotenoids, ascorbic acid, terpenes, tannins, saponins, alkaloids, minerals, etc. found in plants are key to managing oxidative stress, which is a major cause of aging. Well-known plant-based supplements from Bacopa monnieri, Curcuma longa, Emblica officinalis, Ginkgo biloba, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Panax ginseng have been found to possess medicinal properties. These supplements have been shown to improve cognitive function, reduce oxidative stress, improve overall health, and potentially extend life and enhance the excellence of life. The obtained benefits from these plant species are due to the presence of their bioactive secondary metabolites, such as bacosides in Bacopa monnieri, curcumin in Curcuma longa, ginsenosides in Panax ginseng, and many more. These compounds not only protect against free radical damage but also modulate key biological pathways of aging. Also, traditional fermented foods (tempeh and kimchi), which are rich in probiotics and bioactive compounds, support gut health, boost immune function, and have anti-aging properties. The molecular mechanisms behind these benefits are the activation of nutrient-sensing pathways like AMPK, SIRT/NAD+, and mTOR, which are important for cellular homeostasis and longevity. This review shows the potential of traditional plant-based foods and dietary supplements for healthy aging, and more studies are needed to prove their efficacy and safety in humans. Incorporating these natural products into our diet may be a practical and effective way to counteract the effects of aging and overall well-being. The foremost goal of this review is to emphasize the importance of supporting the body’s antioxidant system by consuming the right balance of natural ingredients in the diet. Full article

Panax plants are known for their significant medicinal and economic value. Being perennial, they are prone to soil-borne diseases during cultivation. However, there has been limited research on the pathogenesis of soil-borne diseases and the diversity of pathogens. While biological control has gained attention for its efficacy and environmental benefits, the factors affecting its efficiency still need thorough evaluation. This review summarizes the influence of biotic factors, such as pathogens and hosts, and environmental factors on the occurrence of soil-borne diseases and pathogen diversity. Additionally, we synthesized bacterial, actinobacterial, and fungal diversity for the biocontrol of soil-borne diseases and their functional mechanisms. Moreover, the review delves into the factors influencing the efficacy of biocontrol, including microbial species, the inoculation method and inoculation volume, and inoculant composition. This article serves as a valuable resource for enhancing the efficiency of biological control and optimizing strategies for managing soil-borne diseases in Panax cultivation in the future. Full article

Depression is a complex and common mental illness affecting physical and psychological health. Panax ginseng C. A. Mey is a traditional Chinese medicine with abundant pharmacological activity and applications in regulating mood disorders. 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol is the major intestinal metabolite of ginsenoside and one of the active components in ginseng. In this study, we aimed to investigate the therapeutic effects of 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol on neuronal damage and depression, which may involve mitochondrial dynamics. However, the mechanism underlying the antidepressant effects of 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol is unelucidated. In the present study, we investigated the potential mechanisms underlying the antidepressant activity of 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol by employing a corticosterone-induced HT22 cellular model and a chronic unpredicted mild stress (CUMS)-induced animal model in combination with a network pharmacology approach. In vitro, the results showed that 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol ameliorated the corticosterone (CORT)-induced decrease in HT22 cell viability, decrease in 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) levels, and increase in nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Furthermore, 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol exerted improvement effects on the CORT-induced increase in HT22 cell mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and apoptosis. In vivo, the results showed that 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol ameliorated depressive symptoms and hippocampal neuronal damage in CUMS mice, and sirtuin1 (SIRT1) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-1-Alpha (PGC-1α) activity were activated in the hippocampus of mice, thereby alleviating mitochondrial dysfunction and promoting the clearance of damaged mitochondria. In both in vivo and in vitro models, after inhibiting SIRT1 expression, the protective effect of 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol on mitochondria was significantly weakened, and dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1)-mediated mitochondrial division was significantly reduced. These findings suggest that 20 (S)-Protopanaxadiol may exert neuroprotective and antidepressant effects by attenuating DRP1-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis by modulating the SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway. Full article

Cisplatin-induced ototoxicity occurs in approximately half of patients treated with cisplatin, and pediatric patients are more likely to be affected than adults. The oxidative stress elicited by cisplatin is a key contributor to the pathogenesis of ototoxicity. Notoginsenoside R1 (NGR1), the main bioactive compound of Panax notoginseng saponins, has antioxidant and antiapoptotic effects. This study investigated the ability of NGR1 to protect against cisplatin-induced damage in auditory HEI-OC1 cells and neonatal murine cochlear explants. The viability of HEI-OC1 cells treated with NGR1 and cisplatin was greater than that of cells treated with cisplatin alone. The results of Western blots and immunostaining for cleaved caspase-3 revealed that the level of cleaved caspase-3 in the cells treated with cisplatin was repressed by NGR1. NGR1 attenuated cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity in HEI-OC1 cells. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were detected with a DCFDA assay and immunostaining for 4-HNE. The result revealed that its expression was induced by cisplatin and was significantly reduced by NGR1. Moreover, NGR1 can promote heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression at both the mRNA and protein levels. ZNPPIX, an HO-1 inhibitor, was administered to cisplatin-treated cells to investigate the role of HO-1 in the protective effect of NGR1. The suppression of HO-1 activity by ZNPPIX markedly abolished the protective effect of NGR1 on cisplatin-treated cells. Therefore, NGR1 protects cells from cisplatin-induced damage by activating HO-1 and its antioxidative activity. In cochlear explants, NGR1 protects cochlear hair cells and attenuates cisplatin-induced ototoxicity by inhibiting ROS generation. In the group treated with cisplatin alone, prominent loss of outer hair cells and severe damage to the structure of the stereociliary bundles of inner and outer hair cells were observed. Compared with the group treated with cisplatin alone, less loss of outer hair cells (p = 0.009) and better preservation of the stereociliary bundles of hair cells were observed in the group treated with cisplatin and NGR1. In conclusion, these findings indicate that NGR1 can protect against cisplatin-induced ototoxicity by inducing HO-1 expression and suppressing oxidative stress. Full article