Search Results (16,884)

Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) rely on automatic control strategies to regulate pollutant concentrations and comply with environmental standards. Among them, Proportional Integral (PI) controllers are widely adopted for their simplicity and robustness, yet their effectiveness is limited by the nonlinear and time-varying dynamics of biological processes. In this work, Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)-based Artificial Neural Network (ANN) PI controllers are proposed as data-driven replacements for conventional PIs in key WWTP feedback loops. Using the Benchmark Simulation Model No. 1 (BSM1), ANN controllers were trained to replicate the behavior of default nitrate and nitrite nitrogen ($S_{NO,2}$) and dissolved oxygen ($S_{O,5}$) loops, under both time-agnostic and time-aware strategies with three- and four-input configurations. The four-input time-aware model delivered the best results, reproducing PI behavior with high accuracy (coefficient of determination, $R^2\approx 0.99$) and considerably reducing control errors. For instance, under storm influent conditions, the $S_{O,5}$ controller reduced the Integral of Squared Error ($\mathrm{ISE}$) and Integral of Absolute Error ($\mathrm{IAE}$) by 84.7% and 68.4%, respectively, compared with the default PI. Beyond loop-level improvements, a Transfer Learning (TL) extension was explored: the trained $S_{O,5}$ controller was directly applied to additional aerated reactors ($S_{O,3}$ and $S_{O,4}$) without retraining, replacing fixed aeration and demonstrating adaptability while reducing design effort. Plant-wide evaluation with the $S_{NO,2}$ loop and three dissolved oxygen loops ($S_{O,3}$–$S_{O,5}$), all controlled by LSTM-based PI controllers, under storm influent conditions, showed further reductions in the Effluent Quality Index ($\mathrm{EQI}$) and the Overall Cost Index ($\mathrm{OCI}$) by 0.84% and 1.47%, respectively, highlighting simultaneous gains in effluent quality and operational economy. Additionally, the actuator and energy analyses showed that the LSTM-based controllers produced realistic and smooth control signals, maintained consistent energy use, and ensured stable overall operation, confirming the practical feasibility of the proposed approach. Full article

Aluminum nitride (AlN), diamond, and β-phase gallium oxide (β-Ga₂O₃) belong to the family of ultra-wide bandgap (UWBG) semiconductors and exhibit remarkable properties for future power and optoelectronic applications. Compared to conventional wide bandgap (WBG) materials such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), they demonstrate clear advantages in terms of high-voltage, high-temperature, and high-frequency operation, as well as extremely high breakdown fields. In this work, numerical simulations are performed to evaluate and compare the radiative responses of AlN, diamond, and β-Ga₂O₃ when exposed to neutron irradiation covering the full atmospheric spectrum at sea level, from 1 meV to 10 GeV. The Geant4 simulation framework is used to model neutron interactions with the three materials, focusing on single-particle events that may be triggered. A detailed comparison is conducted, particularly concerning the generation of secondary charged particles and their distributions in energy, linear energy transfer (LET), and range given by SRIM. The contribution of the ¹⁴N(n,p)¹⁴C reaction in AlN is also specifically investigated. In addition, the study examines the consequences of these interactions in terms of electron-hole pair generation and charge deposition, and discusses the implications for the radiation sensitivity of these materials when exposed to atmospheric neutrons. Full article

Background/Objectives: Numerous studies have demonstrated that dietary plant-derived polyphenols suppress signaling and metabolic pathways in various malignancies, including neuroblastoma. In the present study, we compared the inhibitory activities of selected polyphenols and their combinations on key metabolic and signaling pathways in two human neuroblastoma cell lines and two noncancerous cell lines—mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Methods: The influence of polyphenols on neuroblastoma cells and MSCs were studied via an MTT-assay, cell cycle analysis, and an apoptosis assay (flow cytometry). Chou-Talalay algorithms were used to quantify drug interactions. SeaHorse energy profiling was applied to study energy metabolism. The influence of the compounds on metabolic enzymes and signaling pathways was examined using immunoblotting. Total protein biosynthesis was assessed using o-propargyl-puromycin labeling (flow cytometry). Results: While most of the studied polyphenols displayed a more significant inhibitory effect on neuroblastoma cells than on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), we found that the combinations of curcumin and quercetin (CQ) and curcumin, quercetin, and resveratrol (CQR) were significantly superior to the individual compounds. These combinations displayed synergistic effects and inhibited the cell cycle while inducing apoptosis. The CQ and CQR combinations effectively suppressed metabolic reprogramming by downregulating key enzymes of glycolysis, respiration, one-carbon metabolism, glutaminolysis, and fatty acid biosynthesis, as well as N-Myc and c-Myc, which are master regulators of metabolic processes. Furthermore, CQ and CQR inhibited AKT/mTOR, MAPK/ERK, and WNT/β-catenin signaling pathways and total protein biosynthesis and sensitized malignant cells to doxorubicin. Conclusions: Polyphenol combinations exert multifaceted inhibitory effects on metabolic rewiring and signaling networks in neuroblastoma cells. Full article

The development of materials for the remediation and monitoring of water environments remains a significant challenge in the field of environment and materials science. In this study, a nickel-based coordination polymer, [Ni(L)(H₂O)₃]_n·nH₂O (1), was synthesized employing 4,4′-(1H,1′H-[2,2′-biimidazole]-1,1′-diyl)dibenzoic acid (H₂L). Single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis showed that L²⁻ ligands connect Ni²⁺ ions into 1D Z-shaped chains via two coordination modes. The chains are further assembled into a 3D supramolecular structure through hydrogen bonding interactions. The photocatalytic test showed that complex 1 could effectively degrade the organic dye methylene blue (MB). Under the conditions of catalyst dosage 5 mg, MB initial concentration 20 ppm and pH 7, the degradation efficiency reached 87.7% within 180 min. In addition, complex 1 can be used for the electrochemical detection of norfloxacin (NOR) by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), exhibiting a linear response in the concentration range of 2–197 μM and the detection limit (LOD) of 1.74 μM. These results demonstrate that complex 1 has bifunctional properties of photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and electrochemical sensing of antibiotic NOR, making it a promising candidate material for the synergistic treatment of complex pollutants. Full article

Background/Objectives: Copper is an essential trace element for physiological processes related to reproduction, but its impact on the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian (HPOA) axis and its specific mechanism remain unclear. Methods: In vivo study: 21-day-old female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly assigned to five groups (n = 10 per group), with all groups fed a basal diet and supplemented with CuSO₄·5H₂O to achieve copper ion concentrations of 0, 15, 30, 45, or 60 mg/kg in the diet. During the second phase of proestrus, blood samples, hypothalamic tissues, pituitary tissues, and ovarian tissues were collected. In vitro study: Primary mixed hypothalamic neurons were isolated and cultured from fetal SD rats on embryonic day 17. After identification by NSE immunofluorescence staining, six copper ion concentration groups (0, 15.6, 31.2, 46.8, 62.4, and 78 μmol/L) were established. The optimal copper concentration for cell viability and GnRH secretion was screened using CCK-8 assay (Sangon, Shanghai, China) and ELISA (Mlbio, Shanghai, China). On this basis, the cells were treated with different concentrations of PKC agonist (PMA) and PKC inhibitor (chelerythrine). Cell viability was evaluated by CCK-8 assay, the expression level of PKC was detected by Western blot, and the optimal concentration with no obvious toxicity was selected for subsequent mechanism research. Results: Dietary copper dose-dependently regulated rat puberty onset; the 45 mg/kg copper group had the earliest onset, and showed significantly increased levels of reproduction-related hormones (GnRH, FSH, LH, E₂) in serum and HPOA axis. Hypothalamic transcriptomics revealed significantly enriched GnRH signaling pathways and GABAergic synaptic pathways. Mechanistically, this copper dose upregulated hypothalamic KISS-1, GPR54, and PKC (mRNA/protein), and downregulated GABA/GABA-R. Adding 46.8 μmol/L copper (as Cu²⁺, equivalent to optimal in vivo level) could activate the KISS-1/GPR54-GnRH system in hypothalamic neurons; regulating PKC activity could synchronously affect the expression of KISS-1, GPR54, GnRH, and GABA/GABA-R, with additional copper enhancing this effect in vitro experiments. Conclusions: This study demonstrates for the first time that dietary copper at 45 mg/kg promotes puberty onset in SD rats. The mechanism involves activation of the hypothalamic PKC pathway, which inhibits GABAergic neurotransmission while activating the KISS-1/GPR54-GnRH system, thereby enhancing HPOA axis activity and gonadotropin secretion. Full article

Alginate and chitosan (Ag/Cs) combined form an effective platform to develop biocompatible hydrogels with customizable properties for controlled drug release. Cannabidiol (CBD), a hydrophobic compound with anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects, represents a powerful strategy to enhance their therapeutic performance. A/Cs hydrogels were produced using the CELLINK^® printer with 12 and 24 mg/mL of CBD. SEM and FTIR were assessed. Viscoelasticity was assessed using oscillatory rheology. Structural strength was evaluated via uniaxial compression. Swelling and absorption were measured gravimetrically under physiological conditions. CBD was successfully incorporated into the 3D-printed A/Cs hydrogel. Increasing the CBD concentration led to mechanical changes such as a dose-dependent decrease in G′ and a slight reduction in the linearity threshold (typically 10–30% from medium loads), while still maintaining G′ > G″. FTIR showed shifts in O–H/N–H and C=O, indicating hydrogen bonding without new reactive bands. Microscopic images revealed moderate pore compaction and increased tortuosity with dose. At higher CBD concentrations, the hydrogel resisted compression but could deform further before failure. Equilibrium swelling and absorption kinetics decreased with increasing dose, resulting in a reduced initial burst and lower water uptake capacity. The CBD-loaded hydrogel provides a mechanically suitable and molecularly stable platform for local drug release in the oral cavity. Full article

Background. Dystroglycanopathies (DGPs) constitute a set of recessive, neuromuscular congenital dystrophies that result from impaired glycosylation of dystroglycan (DG). These disorders typically course with CNS alterations, which, alongside gradual muscular dystrophy, may include brain malformations, intellectual disability and a panoply of ocular defects. In this process, the protein products of 22 genes, collectively dubbed DGP-associated genes, directly or indirectly participate sequentially along a complex, branched biosynthetic pathway. POMGNT2 and POMGNT1 are two enzymes whose catalytic activity consists of transferring the same substrate, a molecule of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) to a common substrate, the O-mannosylated α subunit of DG. Despite their presumptive role in retinal homeostasis, there are currently no reports describing their expression pattern or function in this tissue. Purpose. This work focuses on POMGNT2 and POMGNT1 expression in the mammalian retina, and on the characterization of their distribution across retinal layers, and in the 661W photoreceptor cell line. Methods. The expression of POMGNT2 protein in different mammalian species’ retinas, including those of mice, rats, cows and monkeys, was assessed by immunoblotting. Additionally, POMGNT2 and POMGNT1 distribution profiles were analyzed using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy in retinal sections of monkeys and mice, and in 661W cultured cells. Results. Expression of POMGNT2 was detected in the neural retina of all species studied, being present in both cytoplasmic and nuclear fractions of the monkey and mouse, and in 661W cells. In the cytoplasm, POMGNT2 was concentrated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and/or Golgi complex, depending on the species and cell type, whereas POMGNT1 accumulated only in the Golgi complex in both monkey and mouse retinas. Additionally, both proteins were present in the nucleus of the 661W cells, concentrating in the euchromatin and heterochromatin, as well as in nuclear PML and Cajal bodies, and nuclear speckles. Conclusions. Our results are indicative that POMGNT2 and POMGNT1 participate in the synthesis of O-mannosyl glycans added to α-dystroglycan in the ER and/or Golgi complex in the cytoplasm of mammalian retinal cells. Also, they could play a role in the modulation of gene expression at the mRNA level, which remains to be established, in a number of nuclear compartments in transformed retinal neurons. Full article

Soil degradation, declining fertility, and rising greenhouse gas emissions highlight the urgent need for sustainable soil management strategies. Among them, biochar has gained recognition as a multifunctional material capable of enhancing soil fertility, sequestering carbon, and valorizing biomass residues within circular economy frameworks. This review synthesizes evidence from 186 peer-reviewed studies to evaluate how feedstock diversity, pyrolysis temperature, and elemental composition shape the agronomic and environmental performance of biochar. Crop residues dominated the literature (17.6%), while wood, manures, sewage sludge, and industrial by-products provided more targeted functionalities. Pyrolysis temperature emerged as the primary performance driver: 300–400 °C biochars improved pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), water retention, and crop yield, whereas 450–550 °C biochars favored stability, nutrient concentration, and long-term carbon sequestration. Elemental composition averaged 60.7 wt.% C, 2.1 wt.% N, and 27.5 wt.% O, underscoring trade-offs between nutrient supply and structural persistence. Greenhouse gas (GHG) outcomes were context-dependent, with consistent Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) reductions in loam and clay soils but variable CH₄ responses in paddy systems. An emerging trend, present in 10.6% of studies, is the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve predictive accuracy, adsorption modeling, and life-cycle assessment. Collectively, the evidence confirms that biochar cannot be universally optimized but must be tailored to specific objectives, ranging from soil fertility enhancement to climate mitigation. Full article

Textile dyeing effluents are characterized by recalcitrant organics and high salinity, requiring robust pretreatments prior to biological polishing. The heterogeneous Fenton-type (HFT) oxidation over Prussian Blue nanoparticles supported on γ-alumina (PBNP/γ-Al₂O₃) was investigated in a liquid batch-recycle packed-bed reactor treating a synthetic textile wastewater (STW) reproducing an industrial dye bath with the Reactive Black 5 (RB5) dye, together with simplified RB5 and RB5 + NaCl matrices. Hydrogen peroxide decay followed pseudo-first-order kinetics. Using fixed initial doses (11, 20, 35 mmol L⁻¹), the catalyst exhibited an early adaptation phase and then reproducible operation: from the fourth reuse onward, both the H₂O₂ decomposition rate constant and DOC removal varied by <10% under identical conditions. Among matrices, STW exhibited the highest oxidant efficiency. With an initial H₂O₂ dose of 11 mmol L⁻¹, the treatment enabled complete discoloration and produced effluents with negligible toxicity. Increasing the initial dose to 20 or 35 mmol L⁻¹ did not improve treatment and led to a decrease in the hydrogen peroxide decomposition rate with reuses and loss of PB ν(C≡N) Raman bands, indicating surface transformation. Overall, PBNP/γ-Al₂O₃ demonstrated reproducible activity and structural resilience in saline, dyeing-relevant matrices at H₂O₂ doses that preserve catalytic integrity, confirming its feasibility as a stable and reusable pretreatment catalyst for saline dyeing effluents, and supporting its integration into hybrid AOP–biological treatment schemes for dyeing wastewater. Full article

Brilliant blue, as a pigment food additive, has all the characteristics of printing and dyeing wastewater and belongs to persistent and refractory organic compounds. The photocatalysis–Fenton reaction system consists of two parts: photocatalytic reaction and Fenton reaction. Electrons promote the decomposition of H₂O₂ to produce •OH. In addition, the effective separation of e- and h⁺ by light strengthens the direct oxidation of h⁺, and h⁺ reacts directly with OH⁻ to produce •OH, which can further promote the removal of organic pollutants. In this paper, g-C₃N₄ and Fe/g-C₃N₄ photocatalysts were prepared by the thermal polycondensation method. Fe/g-C₃N₄ of 15 wt% can reach 98.59% under the best degradation environment, and the degradation rate of g-C₃N₄ is only 7.6% under the same conditions. The photocatalytic activity of the catalysts was further studied. Through active species capture experiments, it is known that •OH and •O₂⁻ are the main active species in the system, and the action intensity of •OH is greater than that of •O₂⁻. The degradation reaction mechanism is that H₂O₂ combines with Fe²⁺ in Fe/g-C₃N₄ to generate a large amount of •OH and Fe³⁺, and the combination of Fe-N bonds accelerates the cycle of Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ and promotes the formation of •OH, thereby accelerating the degradation of target pollutants. •O₂⁻ can reduce Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺, Fe²⁺ reacts with H₂O₂ to produce •OH, which promotes degradation, and •O₂⁻ itself also plays a role in degradation. In addition, under the optimal experimental conditions obtained by response surface experiments, the fitting degree of first-order reaction kinetics is 0.96642, and the fitting degree of second-order reaction kinetics is 0.57884. Therefore, this reaction is more in line with first-order reaction kinetics. The adsorption rate is only proportional to the concentration of Fe/g-C₃N₄. Full article

Nanotechnology offers powerful new tools to enhance food quality monitoring and safety assurance. In the food industry, nanoscale materials (e.g., metal, metal oxide, carbon, and polymeric nanomaterials) are being integrated into sensory systems to detect spoilage, contamination, and intentional food tampering with unprecedented sensitivity. Nanosensors can rapidly identify foodborne pathogens, toxins, and chemical changes that signal spoilage, overcoming the limitations of conventional assays that are often slow, costly, or require expert operation. These advances translate into improved food safety and extended shelf-life by allowing early intervention (for example, via antimicrobial nano-coatings) to prevent spoilage. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the types of nanomaterials used in food sensory applications and their mechanisms of action. We examine current applications in detecting food spoilage indicators and adulterants, as well as recent innovations in smart packaging and continuous freshness monitoring. The advantages of nanomaterials—including heightened analytical sensitivity, specificity, and the ability to combine sensing with active preservative functions—are highlighted alongside important toxicological and regulatory considerations. Overall, nanomaterials are driving the development of smarter food packaging and sensor systems that promise safer foods, reduced waste, and empowered consumers. However, realizing this potential will require addressing safety concerns and establishing clear regulations to ensure responsible deployment of nano-enabled food sensing technologies. Representative figures of merit include Au/AgNP melamine tests with LOD 0.04–0.07 mg L⁻¹ and minute-scale readout, a smartphone Au@carbon-QD assay with LOD 3.6 nM, Fe₃O₄/DPV detection of Sudan I at 0.001 µM (linear 0.01–20 µM), and a reusable Au–Fe₃O₄ piezo-electrochemical immunosensor for aflatoxin B1 with LOD 0.07 ng mL⁻¹ (≈15 × reuse), alongside freshness labels that track TVB-N/amine in near-real time and e-nose arrays distinguishing spoilage stages. Full article

Here, we show that the aureolic acid-class antibiotic, olivomycin A, exerts potent anticancer activity in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) by disrupting both cell survival and metastatic programs. In A-498 (wild-type p53) and 786-O (loss-of-function in p53 and PTEN) cells, olivomycin A markedly inhibited migratory capacity and reversed epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), as shown by downregulation of nuclear Snail and the mesenchymal marker N-cadherin and restoration of the epithelial markers, E-cadherin and ZO-1. In parallel, olivomycin A induced apoptosis through distinct p53-dependent mechanisms: In A-498 cells, apoptosis was primarily mediated through the intrinsic pathway, characterized by the upregulation of Puma, Bak, and activation of caspase-9. In 786-O cells, caspase-8 activation and Bid truncation were observed alongside mitochondrial involvement, suggesting possible cross-talk apoptotic cascades. Notably, in p53-mutant 786-O cells, treatment with olivomycin A elicited severe genotoxic stress accompanied by robust DNA damage signaling, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, and lysosomal activation, culminating in extensive mitochondrial removal. Such changes were weaker in p53-wild-type A-498 cells, suggesting that the altered p53 context sensitizes RCC cells to olivomycin A-mediated mitochondrial quality control mechanisms. Collectively, our findings delineate a multifaceted mechanism whereby olivomycin A coordinates EMT suppression, apoptotic induction, and mitochondrial clearance. Thus, olivomycin A has potential as a therapeutic candidate that can target both survival and metastatic pathways in heterogeneous genetic backgrounds. Full article

This study investigates neutron radiation sources in medical cyclotrons used for PET isotope production, focusing on differences between ¹⁸F and ¹¹C. Neutron and gamma dose rates were measured in the bunker and operator control room during routine production with an 11 MeV Eclipse cyclotron. ¹⁸F production generated approximately 2.5 times higher neutron levels in the bunker than ¹¹C. Shielding performance also varied: the same wall reduced neutron fluxes by factors of k_F = 14,000 for ¹⁸F and k_C = 86,000 for ¹¹C, while gamma shielding was similar for both isotopes (k_γ ≈ 28,000). However, the neutron shielding factor calculated from the data for ¹⁸F should be taken as k_F ≥ 1.4 × 10⁴, because several neutron readings reached the upper limit of the detector range, which indicates a partial underestimation of the dose in the bunker. Consequently, neutron levels in the control room during ¹⁸F production were about 15-fold higher than during ¹¹C production. These differences result from distinct neutron generation mechanisms. The ¹⁸O(p,n)¹⁸F reaction produces primary neutrons with a Maxwellian spectrum (~2.5 MeV), while ¹¹C neutrons arise solely from secondary interactions in structural materials. The findings emphasize the need for composite shielding adapted to isotope-specific spectra. Annual dose estimates (260 ¹⁸F and 52 ¹¹C productions) showed neutron exposure (3.78 mSv/year, 57%) exceeded gamma exposure (2.82 mSv/year, 43%). The total dose of 6.6 mSv/year is ~33% of regulatory limits, supporting compliance but underscoring the need for dedicated neutron dosimetry. Full article

Wastewater nitrogen pollution is a serious environmental problem, and traditional treatment techniques are frequently constrained by their high energy requirements and operational complexity. The anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) process combined with membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology (anammox-MBR) offers a practical and energy-efficient solution for the sustainable removal of nitrogen, further enhanced by its potential to minimize emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O), a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential nearly 300 times that of carbon dioxide. This review outlines the most recent advancements in anammox-MBR systems, highlighting their ability to achieve nitrogen removal efficiencies of more than 70–90% and, in integrated systems with reverse osmosis, to recover up to 75% of the inflow as high-quality reusable water. Significant advancements such as high-rate activated sludge coupling, reverse osmosis integration, microaeration methods, and membrane surface modifications have decreased membrane fouling, accelerated startup times, and enhanced system stability. Despite these achievements, there are still issues that hinder widespread use, such as membrane fouling exacerbated by hydrophobic anammox metabolites, sensitivity to low temperatures (≤10 °C), and the persistent challenge of suppressing nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB), which compete for the essential nitrite substrate. To enable cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally sustainable large-scale applications, future research directions will focus on creating cold-tolerant anammox strains, advanced anti-fouling membranes, and AI-driven process optimization. Full article

Mg-doped gallium oxide films were prepared on single crystal sapphire substrates through radio frequency magnetron sputtering technology, and then AlN films of different thicknesses were deposited on them as passivation layers. Finally, Pt interdigitated electrodes were prepared through mask plate and ion sputtering technology to make metal–insulator–semiconductor–insulator–metal (MISIM) photodetectors. The influence of the AlN passivation layer on the optical properties and photodetection performance of the device was investigated using UV-Vis (ultraviolet-visible absorption spectroscopy) spectrophotometer and a Keith 4200 semiconductor tester. The device’s performance was significantly enhanced. Among them, the MISIM-structured device achieves a responsivity of 2.17 A/W, an external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 1100%, a specific detectivity (D*) of 1.09 × 10¹² Jones, and a photo-to-dark current ratio (PDCR) of 2200. The results show that different thicknesses of AlN passivation layers have an effect on the detection performance of Mg-doped β-Ga₂O₃ films in the UV detection of the solar-blind UV region. The AlN’s thickness has little effect on the bandgap when it is 3 nm and 5 nm, and the bandgap increases at 10 nm. The transmittance of the film increases with the increase in AlN thickness and decreases when the AlN’s thickness increases to 10 nm. The photocurrent exhibits a non-monotonic dependence on AlN thickness at 10 V, and the dark current gradually decreases. The thickness of the AlN passivation layer also has a significant impact on the response characteristics of the detector, and the response characteristics of the device are best when the thickness of the AlN passivation layer is 5 nm. The responsiveness, detection rate, and external quantum efficiency of the device first increase and then decrease with the thickness of the AlN layer, and comprehensive performance is best when the thickness of the AlN passivation layer is 5 nm. The reason is that the AlN layer plays a passivating role on the surface of Ga₂O₃ films, reducing surface defects and inhibiting its capture of photogenerated carriers, while the appropriate thickness of the AlN layer increases the barrier height at the semiconductor interface, forming a built-in electric field and improving the response speed. Finally, the AlN layer inhibits the adsorption and desorption processes between the photogenerated electron–hole pair and O₂, thereby retaining more photogenerated non-equilibrium carriers, which also helps enhance photoelectric detection performance. Full article