Search Results (620)

Coral sand dissolution may weaken particle strength and compromise the foundation stability of reclaimed reef islands. However, its dissolution mechanisms and associated effects under saline–freshwater conditions remain poorly quantified. This study combined dissolution experiments, inverse hydrogeochemical modeling, statistical analysis, machine learning, and multiscale characterization to identify dominant mechanisms, quantify their contributions, determine key factors, and evaluate alterations in reef island groundwater. Results demonstrated that the dissolution capacity of coral sand (q) ranged from 0.04 to 0.24 mg, increasing with salinity but decreasing with pH and particle size. Coral sand dissolution was mainly controlled by carbonic-acid-mediated dissolution and Ca-Na cation exchange. The cation exchange contribution (p) reached 63–95% under alkaline conditions and increased with pH, salinity, and particle size. Random Forest accurately predicted q and p, with R² values of 0.875 and 0.980, respectively. SHAP analysis identified salinity and pH as the dominant predictors of q and p, respectively. With increasing q, the relative aragonite content decreased, whereas calcite content increased; particle surfaces became rougher, BET specific surface area and porosity increased by 5–28% and 2–10.5%, respectively, and single-particle compressive strength decreased by 70–87%. These findings provide a theoretical basis for assessing stability and reinforcing coral sand foundations on artificial islands. Full article

The agricultural and environmental application of Miscanthus × giganteus biomass ash (MBA) as a soil amendment requires a thorough assessment of its properties, nutrient potential, and associated risks. This study characterizes the elemental composition, pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content of MBA in comparison with other common biomass ashes (crops, wood, and sewage sludge) referred to the international regulatory standards. The ash exhibits a strong alkaline pH (11.03), suggesting potential to improve soil pH in acid soils, but requires careful controlled application to prevent excessive alkalization. The main nutrients detected include K (5.54%), Ca (2.07%), Mg (0.37%), and P (0.86%), indicating its potential as a soil amendment, though long-term use may cause nutrient imbalances. Micronutrients such as Zn (240.67 mg·kg⁻¹), Mn (297 mg·kg⁻¹), and Cu (33.5 mg·kg⁻¹) are found in concentrations suitable for agricultural use, while potentially toxic elements (PTEs), including Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb, are below detection limits, thereby reducing the risk of pollution. As (8.3 mg·kg⁻¹) and ΣPAHs (1.63 mg·kg⁻¹) remain within safety thresholds, suggesting a low environmental toxicity of MBA. The low Na content (0.12%) indicates a minimal risk of salinity accumulation, distinguishing MBA from high-sodium biomass ashes. Soil alkalization, disruptions in nutrient balance, and element leaching are risks to be considered. Despite these concerns, its composition is in agreement with established safety guidelines, supporting its feasibility for valorization as a sustainable soil amendment and remediation material. To maximize agronomic benefits and mitigate environmental risks, it is important to utilize the ash, considering site conditions and carry out regular monitoring of the soil. Full article

Introduction: The Cananéia–Iguape Lagoon Complex, part of the Lagamar Mosaic of Conservation Units, comprises interconnected ecosystems that facilitate the dispersal and exchange of larvae, juveniles, and adults across habitats. This connectivity is a vital ecological process, driving the demographic linkage of local populations. Due to its commercial importance and abundance, the fat snook (Centropomus parallelus) serves as an ideal model for connectivity studies in this region. This study evaluated the otolith fingerprints of fat snook nursery areas within an estuarine complex using elemental chemical signatures. Methodology: Otoliths from 24 juveniles (n = 6 per site) were sampled across four nurseries: Ariri (AR), Itapanhapima (IT), Subauma (SU), and Iguape (IG). Multi-elemental signatures (Na, Mg, P, K, Ca, Mn, Sr, Ba, and Pb) at the otolith edge were measured via Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Results: Multivariate analysis (PERMANOVA, p < 0.05) revealed significant chemical differences between nurseries, corroborated by pairwise tests. Canonical Analysis of Principal Coordinates (CAP) with leave-one-out cross-validation successfully assigned individuals to their collection sites with accuracies of 55% (AR), 72% (IT), 94% (SU), and 88% (IG), achieving a 78% global reclassification rate. CAP results distinguished two primary groups: the southern nurseries (AR/IT) and northern nurseries (SU/IG). This spatial separation was primarily driven by Sr:Ca and Ba:Ca ratios, reflecting the higher marine influence in the south versus freshwater input from the Ribeira de Iguape River in the north. Conclusions: These findings provide critical data to support public policies for the conservation of coastal ecosystems and the management of associated fish stocks. Full article

Humus substances are an important part of stable soil organic matter, which is also influenced by the soil tillage system, particularly indirectly through the mechanisms of stabilisation. This study evaluated relationships within the humus substances–cations–soil texture system and differences between invasive and non-invasive tillage systems in four soils. The influence of exchangeable cations (K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Fe³⁺, Al³⁺) and particle size distribution (sand, silt, clay) on quantity (humic and fulvic acids) and quality (ratio of HA/FA, degree of humification, colour coefficients) of humus substances was studied. In reduced tillage, the humus substances interacted mainly with iron and aluminium. Higher humus substance contents were associated with higher K⁺; the influence of Ca²⁺ was greater in coarse-grain soils (Haplic Chernozem, Eutric Regosol); and Al³⁺ was positively correlated with humic acids and negatively with fulvic acids. The statistical associations indicate that in conventional tillage, humus substances interacted mainly with Ca²⁺. Higher humic acid contents indicate an association pattern with higher Na⁺ contents; the relationship of Ca²⁺ appears more pronounced in fine-grained soils (Mollic Fluvisol, Haplic Luvisol); and Al³⁺ was positively correlated with fulvic acids and negatively with humic acids. The soil tillage system influenced the humus substances indirectly by a combination of factors—cation composition and soil texture in different ways. In reduced tillage, clay and silt were statistically associated with iron and aluminium; in conventional tillage, there were two branches: clay with divalent cations and silt with trivalent cations. The soil tillage system can modify the impact of carbonates on humus substances and thus indirectly change the character of transformation processes in the soil. Depth is very important in evaluating the influence of the soil tillage system. Full article

To elucidate the solute sources, migration and enrichment mechanisms of water bodies in the endorheic lake region of the Qiangtang Plateau on the Tibetan Plateau and clarify the hydrogeochemical cycling patterns in alpine arid environments, this study focuses on two core scientific objectives: quantitative identification of the multi-source contributions of aquatic solutes, and revelation of the key processes governing the enrichment of strategic elements including lithium (Li) and boron (B). To achieve these goals, we conducted systematic hydrogeological field investigations and collected 28 multi-type water samples, covering springs, rivers, thermal springs, freshwater lakes, salt lake brines, atmospheric precipitation, and glacial meltwater. The physicochemical properties, major ions, and trace elements of all samples were comprehensively analyzed. On this basis, the hydrogeochemical characteristics, evolutionary processes, and solute origins of regional waters were systematically explored. Combined with PHREEQC numerical simulation, principal component analysis (PCA), and Pearson correlation analysis, the dominant controlling factors of water geochemistry were quantified, and a conceptual hydrogeochemical evolution model was established. The results reveal a clear hydrogeochemical evolutionary gradient across the study area: water bodies evolve from low-salinity HCO₃-Ca recharge end-members and transitional HCO₃·SO₄-Ca(Mg) type water to highly mineralized Cl-Na (SO₄·Cl-Na) salt lake brines, accompanied by synchronous enrichment of Li, B, arsenic (As), and other characteristic elements. Solute accumulation in regional waters is governed by the ternary coupling effects of evaporative concentration, rock weathering and leaching, and deep geothermal fluid input, while cation exchange and mineral dissolution–precipitation reactions further modulate ionic composition and ratios. Elements including As, Li, B, and chloride (Cl⁻) exhibit conservative migration behaviors in non-hydrothermal waters, whereas thermal springs possess unique geochemical signatures driven by deep fluid recharge. PCA results indicate that evaporative concentration serves as the primary controlling factor with a contribution rate of 55.39%; rock weathering provides the basic solute load (17.09%); and the coupled processes of deep fluid mixing and carbonate precipitation regulate elemental fractionation (14.21%). These findings systematically clarify the hydrogeochemical evolution laws and multi-source coupling mechanisms of inland lake waters in the Qiangtang Plateau. Furthermore, this study establishes a conceptual framework of “multi-source recharge–water–rock interaction–evaporative concentration”, advances the understanding of alpine hydrological cycling under climate change, and provides a solid scientific foundation for hydrological cycle research and green exploration of strategic mineral resources in endorheic salt lake regions. Full article

This study presents an integrated process for the recovery and purification of lithium hydroxide (LiOH) from lithium sulfate (Li₂SO₄) solution obtained by sulfuric acid leaching of spent crucibles used for producing the cathodes of LIBs. The recovered leachate contains considerable concentrations of metallic impurities, including Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al, and Ni, which hinder the direct production of high-purity LiOH. To overcome this limitation, a pretreatment step combining cation- and anion-exchange resins was introduced to control impurity levels and condition the solution prior to conversion. Under the optimized ion-exchange condition of 10 g cation-exchange resin and 50 g anion-exchange resin, the solution pH was adjusted to 6–7, resulting in effective impurity removal through combined ion-exchange and solution-conditioning effects. More than 90% of Al was removed, while Mg, Ca, Na, K, and Ni were removed by approximately 70–75%. After purification, LiOH was produced through a double-displacement conversion reaction using Ba(OH)₂. The results showed that the reaction temperature and the [OH]:[Li] molar ratio were the key parameters governing the sulfate-removal-based apparent conversion efficiency and filtrate-based LiOH purity. Excess OH⁻ promoted the formation of dissolved and complexed species, thereby lowering the purity of the LiOH-containing filtrate. In contrast, the optimum condition was identified at 70 °C and an [OH]:[Li] molar ratio of 1:1, under which SO₄²⁻ was effectively removed as solid BaSO₄. Under these conditions, the sulfate-removal-based apparent conversion efficiency reached 91.91%, and the filtrate-based LiOH purity was 98.84%. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the coexistence of LiOH·H₂O and LiOH phases in the final recovered product, whereas the precipitate was identified as single-phase BaSO₄, indicating effective sulfate removal. Overall, this study demonstrates the feasibility of producing high-purity LiOH from sulfation-derived Li₂SO₄ leachate through a sequential process consisting of impurity removal, conversion, and drying. The findings provide fundamental process data for the design of lithium recovery and purification routes using spent cathode crucibles as secondary lithium resources. Full article

Ningbo City is endowed with abundant mineral water resources. Investigating their chemical characteristics and formation mechanisms is essential for understanding hydrochemical evolution and supporting sustainable resource utilization. Based on hydrochemical data from 12 drinking natural mineral water sources in Ningbo City, this study investigates the hydrochemical features and genesis of mineral water by integrating statistical analysis, hydrochemical diagrams, ionic ratios, and mineral equilibrium modeling. The results indicate that metasilicic acid (as H₂SiO₃) and strontium (Sr) are the principal characteristic components of the drinking natural mineral water in Ningbo City, with concentrations of 32.87–60.8 mg/L and 0.05–4.59 mg/L, respectively. The mineral waters are neutral to slightly alkaline and weakly mineralized, with the pH values ranging from 6.70 to 8.16, and total dissolved solids (TDS) contents of 76.8–767.2 mg/L. The predominant hydrochemical facies are HCO₃-Ca-Na, HCO₃-Ca, HCO₃-Na-Ca. Their chemical composition is mainly governed by rock weathering, whilst also being influenced by cation exchange and mineral dissolution–precipitation equilibrium. H₂SiO₃ is mainly derived from the weathering and hydrolysis of silicate minerals such as plagioclase. Sr enrichment is associated with the dissolution of Sr-bearing silicate minerals and certain sulphate minerals, as well as prolonged water–rock interaction. The Sr- and Si-rich aquifers provide the material basis for the enrichment of Sr and H₂SiO₃ in groundwater. Structural fractures and weathering fractures provide transport pathways and storage spaces for groundwater, facilitating the migration and enrichment of these characteristic components. The mechanism of mineral water emergence can be summarized as of the tectonic fracture-controlled circulation-leaching type. Full article

Saline water irrigation has emerged as a promising approach to mitigate agricultural water shortages; however, its improper use may induce secondary soil salinization. In this study, saline-alkali soil collected from Hami, Xinjiang, was used to conduct a series of indoor one-dimensional vertical soil column experiments. The aim was to systematically investigate the effects of sodium humate and desulfurization gypsum on soil infiltration behavior and the distribution patterns of key cations and anions under different levels of irrigation water salinity. The results showed that sodium humate application markedly improved soil infiltration capacity, while the duration of infiltration decreased with increasing salinity. Under salinity levels of 12 and 16 g/L, the 4 g/kg sodium humate treatment exhibited the most rapid advancement of the wetting front. In contrast, desulfurization gypsum reduced infiltration rates, with the lowest infiltration observed under the 12.5 g/kg treatment at 16 g/L salinity. Under different treatments, the adjusted coefficients of determination (adjusted R²) for the Philip, Kostiakov, and Horton models ranged from 0.8450 to 0.9841, 0.9901 to 0.9989, and 0.9748 to 0.9942, respectively, while the global performance indicator (GPI) ranged from 1.619 × 10⁻³ to 5.103 × 10⁻¹, 4.998 × 10⁻⁹ to 2.166 × 10⁻⁵, and 1.505 × 10⁻⁶ to 2.438 × 10⁻⁴, respectively. These results indicate that the Kostiakov model outperformed the other models in terms of fitting accuracy and overall performance for describing the soil infiltration process. In addition, sodium humate generally increased the sorptivity parameter S in the Philip model and the empirical coefficient K in the Kostiakov model, whereas desulfurization gypsum showed the opposite trend. In terms of salt regulation, sodium humate demonstrated optimal desalination performance at application rates of 6–8 g/kg under low salinity and 4–6 g/kg under high salinity conditions. Conversely, excessive gypsum application tended to exacerbate salt accumulation, although a moderate dosage (5 g/kg) effectively limited the downward migration and accumulation of Na⁺ and Cl⁻. These two ions were identified as the dominant contributors to soil salinization, showing strong positive correlations with soil salt content (SSC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). In contrast, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and HCO₃⁻ played beneficial roles in alleviating sodicity through ion exchange and buffering mechanisms. Overall, sodium humate enhanced infiltration and facilitated salt leaching in the upper soil layers under saline irrigation conditions. Although desulfurization gypsum reduced infiltration and increased overall salt content, it contributed to mitigating Na⁺ accumulation in deeper soil profiles. These findings highlight the critical importance of selecting appropriate soil amendments and optimizing their application rates to improve saline water use efficiency and promote sustainable management of saline-alkali soils. Full article

This study was performed to elucidate the mechanism underpinning the nodal swelling induced by equinatoxin II (EqtII), a cation-selective pore-forming toxin derived from the sea anemone Actinia equina. Experiments were conducted using frog myelinated nerve fibers as a model system. Application of EqtII led to an approximately two-fold increase in the nodal volume of myelinated axons, but only when extracellular Ca²⁺ was present. Replacing extracellular Cl⁻ with isethionate had no measurable effect on this response, whereas substitution of NaCl with either sucrose or LiCl, an established Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger (NCX) inhibitor, abolished the swelling. The persistence of the effect in the presence of tetrodotoxin indicates that voltage-gated Na⁺ channels are not involved in the underlying mechanism. Our data suggest that Ca²⁺ influx through EqtII-induced membrane pores raises intracellular Ca²⁺ levels, thereby stimulating the NCX in its forward-operating mode. This process promotes Ca²⁺ extrusion in exchange for Na⁺ entry. The resulting accumulation of intracellular Na⁺ increases osmotic pressure within the axon, leading to water influx and nodal swelling. Full article

Excitotoxicity is one of the factors that participates in neurodegeneration, impairing neuronal and glial cells’ function, and leading to the development of chronic neurodegenerative diseases. The main mechanism of action lies in the overstimulation of excitatory receptors, especially the NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic acid) receptor, by glutamate, which promotes a massive influx of Ca²⁺ that is not sufficiently buffered by the intracellular machinery, or not released by mechanisms such as Ca²⁺ ATPase and plasma membrane Ca²⁺/Na⁺ exchanger promoting, among other toxic effects, mitochondrial damage and an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS). Notably, many cases reported of long COVID-19 describe significant brain alterations and neuropsychiatric disorders, including delirium, depression, etc., and patients required increased use of antidepressant or anxiolytic drugs, for example. In addition, emerging evidence links neurodegeneration as a potential long-term sequelae associated with an increased number of patients with cognitive disorders. This review analyzes data from the literature regarding brain alterations associated with post-COVID-19 syndrome and explores a potential link to the excitotoxicity pathways, due to its participation in neurodegeneration by homeostatic failure, and it is clearly present in various brain conditions, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Full article

The Xianglaqu River Basin, a major recharge area of the Xiagacuo endorheic lake basin on the Tibetan Plateau, provides an ideal setting for investigating hydrochemical evolution in alpine arid closed basins. In this study, 27 groundwater, spring-water, and surface-water samples collected from June to August 2023 were analyzed using correlation analysis, Piper diagrams, Gibbs diagrams, and ion-ratio methods. The results show that groundwater, spring water, and most surface water are predominantly of the HCO₃⁻–Ca·Mg type, indicating overall hydrochemical consistency across the basin. However, marked spatial differentiation occurs along the flow system: upstream waters are relatively simple and stable, whereas downstream and terminal surface waters show pronounced increases in Na⁺, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, and TDS, and some samples exhibit a tendency toward HCO₃⁻–Na facies. These patterns reflect progressive solute accumulation and terminal enrichment in the closed basin. Hydrochemical evolution is controlled mainly by water–rock interaction, with carbonate weathering as the dominant source of major ions, while silicate weathering, minor local saline-mineral dissolution, cation exchange, and evaporation concentration further influence water chemistry. Overall, the basin is characterized by local weathering release, along-path solute accumulation, and terminal evaporative enrichment. Full article

Vasculogenic mimicry (VM) is the ability of cancer stem cells (CSCs) to express an endothelial-like phenotype and participate in tumor neovascularization via the formation of a blood-conducting, matrix-rich network. We previously reported that pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) CSCs develop their VM phenotype via two interacting and coordinated factors that support the formation of the VM network: (i) the overexpression of genes for endothelial factors and vascular receptors and (ii) the very high secretion of numerous pro-angiogenic/growth factors. While microenvironmental acidosis (low pHe) is an important driver of tumor metastasis, especially in PDAC, and is a component of the CSC niche, its role in VM and the ion transporters involved remains unknown. As normal stem cell differentiation is regulated by Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger 1 (NHE1)-driven pH, we investigated the role of NHE1 and the intracellular signaling involved in the acidosis-induced VM using a platform of 3D organotypic cultures composed of Matrigel with increasing concentrations of Collagen I. VM was highest on 90% Matrigel:10% Collagen I, representative of an early tumor ECM, and it decreased with increasing concentrations of Collagen I, representative of advanced tumors. In all ECM compositions, VM capacity increased stepwise with pHe acidification, and both basal and acid-stimulated VM were dependent on NHE1 activity. Acidification also decreased resting pHi and increased NHE1 proton extrusion activity, NHE1/ß1 integrin co-expression, and intracellular Ca²⁺. The stimulation of VM by extracellular acidosis depended on the transport of extracellular Ca²⁺ into the cell and the consequent increase in intracellular Ca²⁺. Altogether, these data demonstrate that extracellular acidification triggers cellular mechanisms that upregulate VM to overcome the constraints imposed by ECM composition, thereby permitting VM in ECMs where this phenotype is not expressed and extending the VM phenotype towards the tumor center to further drive metastasis. Full article

Groundwater nitrate contamination, coupled with long-term overexploitation and intensive anthropogenic perturbations, has become a critical environmental challenge in the northwestern North China Plain, underscoring the urgent need to elucidate groundwater hydrochemical characteristics and their genetic mechanisms. Taking the upper section of the Yongding River alluvial–proluvial fan as the study area, this research aims to quantitatively decipher the hydrochemical characteristic and genetic mechanism of high-nitrate groundwater, identify the sources of nitrate contamination, and assess the associated human health risks. By leveraging over a decade of continuous hydrochemical monitoring data, an integrated analytical approach is adopted, including hydrochemical ionic ratio analysis, Positive Matrix Factorization, and Human Health Risk Assessment. The results indicate that the groundwater is characterized by HCO₃-Ca. The pH values range from 7.2 to 8.2 while the total dissolved solids concentrations vary between 695 mg/L and 949 mg/L. Ionic ratio analysis demonstrates that water–rock interaction is the dominant controlling process, involving silicate hydrolysis, dissolution of carbonates, gypsum dissolution, and cation exchange. The Positive Matrix Factorization model quantitatively identifies four key factors controlling the hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater. Factor 1 is dominated by NO₃⁻ (76.67%) and associated with exogenous nitrate inputs from nitrogen fertilizer application. Factor 2 is dominated by Na⁺ (72.26%) and Mg²⁺ (81.67%), deriving from silicate weathering and dolomite dissolution. Factor 3 is governed by pH (59.62%) and K⁺ (71.65%), with its driving mechanism being the weathering and dissolution of potassium-bearing silicate minerals. Factor 4 is dominated by SO₄²⁻ (50.12%) and constitutes a mixed source associated with sulfur-containing fertilizer application and livestock breeding. Groundwater NO₃⁻ concentrations range from 4.2 mg/L to 23.3 mg/L, with 69% of dry-season and 77% of wet-season samples exceeding the 10 mg/L threshold, primarily originating from manure and domestic wastewater. HHRA results show that nitrate poses significant non-carcinogenic health risks, with the highest risk observed in children (100% of samples at high risk), followed by adult females (92% at high risk) and adult males (77~92% at high risk). This study provides quantitative insights into the genetic mechanisms of groundwater nitrate contamination and offers a scientific basis for groundwater quality management and health risk mitigation in the NCP and other similar agricultural regions worldwide. Full article

Groundwater is a critical lifeline for ecosystems and human settlements in arid and semi-arid regions, yet it is increasingly vulnerable to the dual pressures of extreme climatic conditions and intensifying anthropogenic activities. This study investigated 24 groundwater and 4 river water samples to discuss the hydrogeochemical evolution and water quality suitability in the Tianjun Basin, a typical high-altitude arid basin on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. The results indicate that groundwater is mildly alkaline (pH: 7.65–8.35) and predominantly fresh (TDS: 233.77–1061.42 mg/L). Hydrochemical facies evolve from HCO₃-Ca type in upstream areas to Mixed HCO₃-Na·Ca and Cl-Na types. Hydrochemical analysis suggests that silicate weathering and carbonate dissolution are the dominant natural processes, while cation exchange further modifies the ionic composition. Notably, anthropogenic nitrogen (NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺) contamination, primarily from domestic sewage in the Tianjun Basin, has significantly impacted groundwater quality. Health risk assessment shows that infants are the most vulnerable group, with 16.67% of samples posing a non-carcinogenic risk via the oral pathway. Regarding irrigation suitability, while sodium hazards are generally low, a significant salinity hazard is identified due to elevated electrical conductivity in the arid environment. This poses a substantial risk of secondary soil salinization, necessitating strict salt management strategies to preserve long-term land productivity. These findings provide critical insights for the sustainable management of fragile groundwater resources in extreme arid environments. Full article

Groundwater-dependent communities such as De Aar require a better understanding of groundwater systems to ensure sustainable allocation. This study aims to trace recharge sources in unconfined and confined aquifers and identify processes controlling groundwater quality using hydrogeochemistry and environmental tracers. It argues that aquifer delineation and hydraulic parameters alone cannot fully identify recharge sources or geochemical processes; integrating them with hydrogeochemistry and environmental tracers provides stronger evidence to support groundwater allocation. To validate the argument, the study integrated hydrogeochemical analysis, stable isotopes, tritium, radon-222, and statistical methods supported by depth-specific groundwater sampling. The results, interpreted using Piper and Gibbs diagrams, PHREEQC modelling, and scatter plots, show that groundwater evolution is mainly controlled by rock–water interaction, ion exchange, evaporation, and mixing processes. Ca–HCO₃ water indicates recent recharge, while Na–Cl water reflects evaporation effects in both unconfined and confined aquifers, with halite dissolution contributing to Na and Cl enrichment. Isotope results indicate that unconfined aquifer water is isotopically enriched and linked to recent recharge, whereas confined aquifer and spring waters are depleted, suggesting recharge from higher elevations through fractured zones. Tritium dating reveals young (<30 years), intermediate (30–50 years), and old groundwater (60–109 years), while radon results indicate active groundwater flow path, particularly along fractures. These findings demonstrate that groundwater recharge is derived from both local meteoric sources and regional contributions, resulting in predominantly fresh groundwater; however, localized quality concerns should be considered for improved water allocation. Full article