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Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition

A special issue of Marine Drugs (ISSN 1660-3397). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine Toxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 June 2026) | Viewed by 7931

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Guest Editor
Service d’Ingénierie Moléculaire pour la Santé (SIMoS), EMR CNRS 9004, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), Institut des Sciences du Vivant Frédéric Joliot, Commissariat à l’énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives (CEA), Université Paris-Saclay, Point Courrier 24, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
Interests: natural toxins from marine and terrestrial organisms; voltage-gated ion channels; ligand gated channels; nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; cholinesterases; IP3 receptors; cell signaling; synaptic transmission; neuromuscular transmission; transmitter release
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In this new Special Issue titled Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition, we invite the submission of manuscripts that explore the microorganisms responsible for marine biotoxin production—including bacteria, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates, diatoms, and fungi—as well as the environmental conditions that promote their proliferation and transfer through the marine food web. The accumulation of marine biotoxins in invertebrates, fish, birds, and marine mammals poses a serious threat to wildlife, and several of these toxins also represent significant risks to human health through the consumption of contaminated seafood. As a result, regulatory thresholds must be continually assessed and refined to ensure food safety.

Marine biotoxins comprise various families of organic compounds with complex and diverse chemical structures, with new toxins continuing to be discovered each year. These toxins act on a wide range of cellular targets, including the following:

(i) Voltage-gated ion channels (Na⁺, K⁺, and Ca²⁺);
(ii) Ionotropic or ligand-gated receptors—such as glutamate (AMPA, kainate, and NMDA), nicotinic acetylcholine, 5-HT₃ (serotonin), and GABA-A receptors;
(iii) Metabotropic receptors, particularly G protein-coupled receptors which are linked to adenylate cyclase (Gs, Gi/o) or phospholipase C-β;
(iv) Intracellular cytosolic and nuclear receptors that influence gene transcription;
(v) Second messengers like calcium, inositol trisphosphate (IP₃), and diacylglycerol, which play critical roles in their mechanisms of action

Gaining a deeper understanding of the cellular and molecular targets, signaling pathways, and toxic mechanisms of marine biotoxins will be key to identifying potential antagonists and developing effective countermeasures.

Prof. Dr. Jordi Molgó
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Marine Drugs is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • marine biotoxins
  • cellular and molecular targets
  • signaling pathways
  • metabolism
  • toxicity
  • risk factors
  • molecular interactions
  • therapeutic potential
  • ion channels
  • Ionotropic receptors
  • ligand-gated receptors
  • metabotropic receptors

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 10006 KB  
Article
Equinatoxin II: How a Cationic Pore-Forming Sea Anemone Toxin Drives Nodal Swelling of Myelinated Nerve Fibers
by Evelyne Benoit, Robert Frangež, Gilles Ouanounou, Frédéric A. Meunier, Dusan Šuput and Jordi Molgó
Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(5), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24050187 - 21 May 2026
Viewed by 528
Abstract
This study was performed to elucidate the mechanism underpinning the nodal swelling induced by equinatoxin II (EqtII), a cation-selective pore-forming toxin derived from the sea anemone Actinia equina. Experiments were conducted using frog myelinated nerve fibers as a model system. Application of [...] Read more.
This study was performed to elucidate the mechanism underpinning the nodal swelling induced by equinatoxin II (EqtII), a cation-selective pore-forming toxin derived from the sea anemone Actinia equina. Experiments were conducted using frog myelinated nerve fibers as a model system. Application of EqtII led to an approximately two-fold increase in the nodal volume of myelinated axons, but only when extracellular Ca2+ was present. Replacing extracellular Cl with isethionate had no measurable effect on this response, whereas substitution of NaCl with either sucrose or LiCl, an established Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) inhibitor, abolished the swelling. The persistence of the effect in the presence of tetrodotoxin indicates that voltage-gated Na+ channels are not involved in the underlying mechanism. Our data suggest that Ca2+ influx through EqtII-induced membrane pores raises intracellular Ca2+ levels, thereby stimulating the NCX in its forward-operating mode. This process promotes Ca2+ extrusion in exchange for Na+ entry. The resulting accumulation of intracellular Na+ increases osmotic pressure within the axon, leading to water influx and nodal swelling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition)
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20 pages, 5741 KB  
Article
Brevetoxin Metabolites: Emerging Toxins in French Shellfish Determined by LC-MS/MS and ELISA
by Zouher Amzil, Amélie Derrien, Korian Lhaute, Aouregan Terre Terrillon and Simon Tanniou
Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24020067 - 3 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1130
Abstract
In France, as part of the monitoring program for the emergence of marine toxins in shellfish (EMERGTOX), brevetoxins (BTX-2, BTX-3) were first detected in shellfish from Corsica (Mediterranean Sea) in 2018. The complex metabolic transformation of brevetoxins in shellfish, coupled with the limited [...] Read more.
In France, as part of the monitoring program for the emergence of marine toxins in shellfish (EMERGTOX), brevetoxins (BTX-2, BTX-3) were first detected in shellfish from Corsica (Mediterranean Sea) in 2018. The complex metabolic transformation of brevetoxins in shellfish, coupled with the limited availability of analytical standards for most metabolites, complicates the accurate evaluation of contamination levels. To address this challenge, two complementary analytical approaches were implemented to quantify brevetoxin metabolites in shellfish samples collected from 2018 to 2023: (i) a targeted LC-MS/MS method specially developed for brevetoxins; and (ii) an ELISA capable of detecting metabolites for which no reference standards are available. Of the 11 brevetoxin metabolites targeted, 4 were quantified by LC-MS/MS: BTX-2, BTX-3, BTX-B5, and S-deoxy-BTX-B2 (including its isomers). The ELISA consistently detected brevetoxins in all Corsican samples previously confirmed positive by LC-MS/MS, with concentrations systematically exceeding those measured by LC-MS/MS. This overestimation may result from antibody cross-reactivity and from the presence of unidentified brevetoxin metabolites not detected by LC-MS/MS. Regardless of the analytical method used, the highest concentration detected exceeded the current French guideline value for brevetoxins in shellfish. To ensure consumer protection, a two-step monitoring strategy is proposed: initial screening via ELISA to estimate brevetoxin contamination, followed by confirmatory LC-MS/MS analysis to identify and quantify the specific metabolites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition)
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12 pages, 8765 KB  
Article
Aptamer-Based Dual-Cascade Signal Amplification System Lights up G-Quadruplex Dimers for Ultrasensitive Detection of Domoic Acid
by Jiansen Li, Zhenfei Xu, Zexuan Zhang, Rui Liu, Yuping Zhu, Xiaoling Lu, Huiying Xu, Xiaoyu Liu, Zhe Ning, Xinyuan Wang, Haobing Yu and Bo Hu
Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24010050 - 21 Jan 2026
Viewed by 875
Abstract
In recent years, harmful algal blooms have led to frequent occurrences of shellfish toxin contamination, posing a significant threat to the safety of aquatic products and public health. As a potent neurotoxin, domoic acid (DA) can accumulate in shellfish, highlighting the urgent need [...] Read more.
In recent years, harmful algal blooms have led to frequent occurrences of shellfish toxin contamination, posing a significant threat to the safety of aquatic products and public health. As a potent neurotoxin, domoic acid (DA) can accumulate in shellfish, highlighting the urgent need for rapid and highly sensitive detection methods. In this study, we developed a fluorescent aptasensor based on a dual-signal amplification system by combining G-quadruplex (G4) dimers with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The sensor is designed with a hairpin-structured aptamer as the recognition probe, where short multi-walled CNTs serve as both a fluorescence quencher and platform, and G4 dimers are incorporated into the sensing interface to enhance signal output. In the absence of the target, the hairpin-structured aptamer remains closed, keeping the fluorescence signal “off”. Upon binding to DA, the aptamer undergoes a specific conformational change that exposes the G4-dimer sequence. The exposed sequence then binds to thioflavin T (ThT), which in turn generates a greatly enhanced fluorescence signal, leading to a substantial fluorescence enhancement and completing the second stage of the cascade amplification. Under optimal conditions, the constructed sensor achieves rapid detection of DA within 5 min, with a low detection limit of 1.1 ng/mL. This work presents a valuable tool for the rapid and sensitive detection of DA in shellfish, with promising applications in marine environmental monitoring and food safety regulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition)
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11 pages, 2823 KB  
Article
Identification and Characterization of Holin-like Protein ORF70 from Cyanophage MaMV-DC
by Lihui Meng, Yi Wu, Jiahao Xu, Jiarui Zhang, Zhiyong Zhang and Chen Wang
Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24010014 - 26 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 749
Abstract
In this study, we characterized the holin-like protein ORF70 from the cyanophage MaMV-DC, offering valuable insights into its role in phage-mediated host cell lysis. ORF70 shares key features with class III holins, such as a hydrophobic transmembrane domain and membrane-associated localization, which are [...] Read more.
In this study, we characterized the holin-like protein ORF70 from the cyanophage MaMV-DC, offering valuable insights into its role in phage-mediated host cell lysis. ORF70 shares key features with class III holins, such as a hydrophobic transmembrane domain and membrane-associated localization, which are crucial for its bacteriolytic activity. Subcellular localization studies suggested its association with the membrane, supporting its classification as a holin-like protein. Overexpression of ORF70 in E. coli resulted in significant growth inhibition, increased β-galactosidase leakage, and visual confirmation of cell death through live/dead staining. Additionally, ORF70’s sensitivity to the energy toxin 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) further indicated its holin-like activity by promoting membrane depolarization. Transmission electron microscopy and Gram staining revealed characteristic morphological changes in E. coli cells, including membrane disruption, consistent with damage caused by holins. These results suggest that ORF70 acts as a holin-like protein that disrupts the host membrane, leading to bacterial cell death. Our study provides evidence supporting the holin-like activity of ORF70 from cyanophage MaMV-DC. This research significantly enhances our understanding of phage-host interactions and opens new avenues for developing phage-based therapies, offering promising alternatives to traditional antibiotics amidst the growing challenge of antibiotic resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition)
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19 pages, 2583 KB  
Article
High Inter- and Intraspecific Variability in Amphidinol Content and Toxicity of Amphidinium Strains
by Catharina Alves-de-Souza, Jannik Weber, Mathew Schmitt, Robert York, Sarah Karafas, Carmelo Tomas and Bernd Krock
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090332 - 22 Aug 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1720
Abstract
Amphidinols (AM) are a diverse group of bioactive polyketides produced by dinoflagellates of the genus Amphidinium, known for their hemolytic, antifungal, and cytotoxic activities. This work presents the assessment of AM profiles in a comprehensive number of strains, whose species boundaries were [...] Read more.
Amphidinols (AM) are a diverse group of bioactive polyketides produced by dinoflagellates of the genus Amphidinium, known for their hemolytic, antifungal, and cytotoxic activities. This work presents the assessment of AM profiles in a comprehensive number of strains, whose species boundaries were previously established through detailed taxonomic analysis. Using UHPLC-MS/MS, we characterized the spectrum of AM analogs in 54 Amphidinium strains isolated from diverse geographical locations. In addition, toxicity was assessed using brine shrimp assays, which revealed significant inter- and intraspecific variability. Despite the broad diversity in AM content, no clear correlation was observed between total AM levels and toxicity across all strains. Multivariate analysis grouped the strains into clusters distinguished by distinct AM profiles and toxicity levels, suggesting that AM production alone does not predict toxicity. Our findings highlight the complexity of Amphidinium bioactivity, emphasizing the influence of strain-specific factors and other bioactive compounds. This work highlights the importance of integrating chemical, genetic, and biological assessments to understand better the factors that govern toxicity in this genus, with implications for ecological studies and the monitoring of harmful dinoflagellates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition)
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Review

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20 pages, 1469 KB  
Review
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins: Current Insights into Toxicity, Mechanisms, and Ecological Impacts
by Hajar Bouda, Rajae El Bourki, Abderrazzak Fattah and Nadia Takati
Mar. Drugs 2026, 24(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/md24010009 - 23 Dec 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2266
Abstract
Diarrheic shellfish toxins (DSTs), especially okadaic acid (OA) and its related compounds, are lipophilic marine biotoxins mainly synthesized by dinoflagellates of the genera Dinophysis and Prorocentrum. These compounds bioaccumulate in filter-feeding shellfish like mussels and clams, posing a considerable public health risk due [...] Read more.
Diarrheic shellfish toxins (DSTs), especially okadaic acid (OA) and its related compounds, are lipophilic marine biotoxins mainly synthesized by dinoflagellates of the genera Dinophysis and Prorocentrum. These compounds bioaccumulate in filter-feeding shellfish like mussels and clams, posing a considerable public health risk due to their strong gastrointestinal effects when contaminated seafood is consumed. This review offers a thorough overview of the current understanding of OA-group toxins with a focus on the molecular mechanisms of toxicity, including cytoskeletal disruption, apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Additionally, their ecological impacts on aquatic organisms and patterns of bioaccumulation are explored. Recent advances in detection methods and regulatory frameworks are discussed, highlighting the necessity for robust monitoring systems to safeguard seafood safety. Enhanced knowledge of the toxicity, distribution, and fate of DSP (diarrheic shellfish poisoning) is essential for improving risk assessment and managing marine biotoxins. Despite methodological advances, gaps remain regarding chronic exposure and species-specific detoxification pathways. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition)
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