Search Results (56)

Pests contribute significantly to the loss of Apis mellifera colonies in a multifactorial context that includes viruses, pesticides, nutritional deficiencies, and climate change. This review critically summarises diagnostic techniques (morphological, molecular, automated) and epidemiological methods for the main parasites (Varroa destructor, Vairimorpha spp., Acarapis woodi, Tropilaelaps spp., Aethina tumida, Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae), evaluating trade-offs between sensitivity, specificity, cost, and practicality. There is no universal gold standard; the methodological choice must be contextualised. A decision-making framework structured on four pillars (Primary objective, Resource constraints, Epidemiological context, Ethics/Regulatory) is proposed to guide optimal selections, with application examples and testable hypotheses for future validation. Limitations of emerging technologies (reduced accuracy in the field for AI and LAMP), gaps in multi-pathogen synergies (including viruses and bacteria), interactions with pesticides, and climate impacts with explicit uncertainties are discussed. A global perspective and a One Health approach are adopted, identifying research priorities for integrated diagnostic tools, validated predictive models, and sustainable strategies. Full article

Stable pollination by honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) is essential for the reliable production of strawberries cultivated in winter greenhouses in Korea. Few studies focused on the management of pollination hives within greenhouses during flowering. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effects of nutritional feed management by supplementing pollen patties and sugar solution on the pollination efficiency and colony longevity of honeybees under greenhouse conditions. In March, the number of foraging bees in the treatment group was 1.94 times higher than that in the control group. The number of bees inside the hive was approximately 2000 greater in February and approximately 2925 greater in March in the treatment group than in the control group. The pollen patties supplemented one time were completely consumed after 53 days, whereas 50% of the patties remained even after 70 days when supplemented three times. The commercial fruit set rate was 5.9% higher, and the fruit weight was significantly heavier, by 1.7 g, in the treatment group than in the control group, although other quality parameters showed no significant differences. Additionally, bee activity was approximately 2.2 times higher in the treatment group with sugar syrup supplementation than in the control group, but the fruit set rate or quality did not significantly differ between the two groups. These findings indicate that the feed management of honeybees during winter greenhouse strawberry cultivation is essential for stable pollination. Proper nutritional supplementation not only enhances bee activity and colony longevity but also improves strawberry productivity, leading to an estimated additional profit of approximately KRW 2.29 million (≈USD 1700) per 0.1 ha. This demonstrates that nutritional management of pollination hives provides both biological and economic benefits for greenhouse strawberry growers. Full article

Propolis, a resinous substance produced by Apis mellifera, is a chemically diverse natural product rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenes, vitamins, and minerals. These compounds exhibit a range of biological activities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and cardioprotective effects, making propolis an attractive candidate for applications in the food and health sciences. This review summarizes the current understanding of its chemical composition and the environmental, botanical, and genetic factors influencing its variability. Particular attention is given to extraction methods: while conventional approaches such as maceration and Soxhlet extraction remain widely used, they often compromise compound stability. In contrast, emerging techniques—such as ultrasound-, microwave-, and supercritical fluid-assisted extraction—enhance yield, selectivity, and sustainability. Encapsulation strategies, including micro- and nanoencapsulation, are also explored as practical tools to protect propolis bioactives from degradation, improve solubility, and mask their strong taste, thereby ensuring higher bioavailability and consumer acceptability. Recent applications in the meat, dairy, beverage, bakery product, and edible film industries demonstrate propolis’ potential to extend shelf life, inhibit microbial growth, and enrich the nutritional and functional quality of these products. Nevertheless, challenges remain, particularly regarding standardization, allergenicity, dosage, and regulatory approval, which limit its widespread industrial adoption. Overall, Apis mellifera propolis represents a multifunctional natural ingredient that bridges traditional medicine with modern food science. Advances in extraction and encapsulation technologies are paving the way for the integration of this ingredient into functional foods, nutraceuticals, and sustainable food preservation systems, underscoring its value as a natural alternative to synthetic additives. Full article

Dearth periods associated with less floral resources negatively impact Apis mellifera colony performance. Artificial diets offer nutritional supplements to sustain bee colonies under stressful conditions. An eight-week feeding trial was conducted using various artificial diets (eight diets, including a control diet), formulated with varying quantities of pulses, yeast, fenugreek powder, vegetable oil, dry apricot powder, and powdered sugar. Colony performance of bees subjected to different artificial diets was evaluated based on diet consumption, brood area, adult bee population, worker bee longevity, honey production, and enzymatic activity. Diet-7, which uniquely combined lupin, mung bean, and chickpea flours, proved the most efficacious and was the most consumed diet (84.29 ± 1.61 g), while diet-1 showed the lowest consumption (35.30 ± 1.08 g). Maximum brood area was recorded in colonies which were offered diet-7 (1385.95 ± 14.91 cm²), followed by diet-6, whereas the lowest was observed in the control (831.03 ± 18.95 cm²). The adult bee population was highest in diet-7 (21,594.50 ± 94.55 bees/hive), while lowest in the control (diet-0) (12,625.43 ± 385.06 bees/hive). Worker bee longevity was greatest in diet-7 (49.40 ± 0.41 days) and lowest in the control group (37.01 ± 0.39 days). Honey production was also highest in diet-7 (8.86 ± 0.21 kg), while lowest in the control (2.79 ± 0.35 kg). The results further showed that the enzymatic activities of bees were significantly improved due to diet-7, with the highest values for amylase (48.62 ± 0.23 U/mg), lipase (16.85 ± 0.20 U/mg), proteinase (25.21 ± 0.18 U/mg), and α-glucosidase (39.21 ± 0.21 U/mg). In conclusion, statistical analyses confirmed that diet-7 emerged as the most effective artificial diet, enhancing colony performance across all evaluated parameters. Future research should aim to optimize diet formulations and evaluate their effectiveness on colony health, including gut microbiome and immune function, across different seasons and ecological regions. Full article

Honeybee populations are increasingly threatened by various environmental stressors, including pesticides, pathogens, and climate change. Emerging research highlights the vital role of pollen polyphenols in supporting honeybee health through a network of antioxidants, immune responses, and detoxification mechanisms. This review synthesizes current findings on the chemical diversity, bioactivity, and functional relevance of polyphenolic compounds in honeybee nutrition. Pollen polyphenols, which include flavonoids and phenolic acids, possess remarkably high antioxidant potential, up to 235 times greater than that of nectar. They also significantly increase the expression of antioxidant enzymes, immune system genes, and detoxification pathways such as cytochrome P450s and glutathione-S-transferases. These compounds also demonstrate antimicrobial effects against key pathogens and mitigate the toxic effects of pesticides. The content and composition of polyphenols vary seasonally and geographically, impacting the resilience of honeybee colonies. Field and laboratory studies confirm that polyphenol-rich diets improve survival, gland development, and stress resistance. Advanced analytical techniques, including metabolomics, have expanded our understanding of polyphenol profiles and their effects on honeybee physiology. However, knowledge gaps remain in pharmacokinetics and structure–function relationships. Integrating this evidence into conservation strategies and good beekeeping practices, such as habitat diversification and targeted feed supplementation, is crucial for maintaining honeybee health and ecosystem services in a rapidly changing environment. Full article

10-Hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), a major fatty acid (FA) component of royal jelly, is synthesized in the mandibular glands (MGs) of worker honeybees. Despite its well-documented nutritional and therapeutic significance, the biosynthetic pathway and regulatory mechanisms of 10-HDA production remain largely unresolved. In this study, the molecular basis of 10-HDA biosynthesis and regulation in the MGs of newly emerged bees (NEBs), nurse bees (NBs), and forager bees (FBs) were investigated using RNA sequencing and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). A five-step biosynthetic pathway for 10-HDA was proposed, and cross-species analysis of Apis mellifera and A. cerana revealed the conserved expression patterns of 15 key enzymes involved. Functional validation via RNA interference (RNAi) demonstrated that knockdown of acyl-CoA Delta(11) desaturase (d11ds, LOC551527), a key enzyme in FA desaturation, led to a 50% reduction in 10-HDA levels. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) network analysis further identified transcriptional regulators Kay and Drep-2 as potential modulators of 10-HDA metabolism. This study provides the first comprehensive mechanistic model of 10-HDA biosynthesis in honeybee MGs and highlights the labor-specific regulation of FA metabolism. These findings offer promising genetic targets for improving the royal jelly quality through genetic technology. Full article

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) play a crucial role in global food production through the pollination of various crops. These vital insects are susceptible to a range of viral pathogens that can disrupt their normal behavior and physiology, ultimately affecting colony dynamics and survival. There are diverse viruses that infect honey bees at different life stages, with a year-round prevalence. There are multiple pathways through which viruses can be transmitted among colonies. Notably, there is also a lack of commercial treatments against viral infections in bees, but some promising strategies exist to mitigate their negative effects, including vector control, and the implementation of good beekeeping practices and biosecurity measures. While methods for treating infected colonies have garnered attention, they receive less focus compared to aspects like transmission methods and seasonal prevalence of viruses. This article aims to review the aforementioned strategies in light of the available literature. It presents succinct and practical approaches categorized based on their potential direct or indirect effects on viruses, providing beekeepers and researchers with an overview of both fully established and still-developing methods. Controlling the ectoparasitic Varroa destructor mite population, which significantly impacts viral prevalence and virulence in bees, is crucial for reducing infections. Practical approaches such as selectively breeding honey bee populations resistant to viruses and ensuring proper nutrition are important strategies. Moreover, genetic methods have also been proposed and tested. The article not only emphasizes these methods but also discusses knowledge gaps and suggests future solutions to improve the health and productivity of honey bee colonies. Full article

The nutritional value of pollen for honeybees varies significantly depending on its source. This study examines the nutrient composition of three types of bee-collected pollen—Maize bee-collected pollen (MBP), Lotus bee-collected pollen (LBP), and Sunflower bee-collected pollen (SBP)—and their effects on honeybee digestion, immunity, and gut microbiota. Nutritional analysis revealed no significant differences in moisture, protein, and carbohydrate content among the three pollen types. However, sunflower bee-collected pollen exhibited a significantly lower crude fat content than maize bee-collected pollen and lotus bee-collected pollen, while lotus bee-collected pollen had a significantly higher crude ash content than the other pollen types. Additionally, notable differences in amino acid composition were observed across the three pollen types. Feeding assays demonstrated that honeybees consumed significantly more sunflower bee-collected pollen than maize bee-collected pollen or lotus bee-collected pollen. Honeybees fed sunflower bee-collected pollen exhibited reduced lipid deposition, enhanced immune enzyme activity, and increased expression of immune-related genes. Protein digestibility was highest in honeybees fed lotus bee-collected pollen, whereas protease and lipase activities were significantly lower in those consuming sunflower bee-collected pollen. Notably, honeybees fed sunflower bee-collected pollen had thinner midgut intestinal walls. Furthermore, the microbial structure of the honeybee gut was altered depending on the type of different pollen. In summary, honeybees had the worst digestibility of Sunflower bee-collected pollen; sunflower bee pollen had a greater effect on antioxidant and immune functions, and intestinal flora of honeybees. These findings underscore the influence of different types of pollen on honeybee nutrition, immunity, and gut microbiota, offering a foundation for optimizing pollen diets to support honeybee health. Full article

Fungal diseases of agricultural crops cause severe economic losses to the growers. For the control of these diseases, azoxystrobin is one of the recommended fungicides. This fungicide is systemic in action and is expected to reach the floral part of the treated crop and its residue in the pollen and nectar, the natural food sources of honey bees, which could be collected and fed on by honey bees, thus affecting their health. The purpose of this study was to determine the physiological and chemical changes caused by this fungicide in honey bee workers (Apis mellifera L). Workers of this honey bee at 1, 8, and 21 days old were treated with 125, 167, and 250 mg/L concentrations of azoxystrobin for seven days; their survival rates, activities of carboxylesterase (CarE), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP450), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes, and the expression levels of immune (Aba, Api, Def1, and Hym) and nutrition genes (Ilp1, Ilp2, and Vg) were detected. Our findings revealed that azoxystrobin affected the survival of workers, particularly 1- and 21-day-old workers, who responded to azoxystrobin stress with increased activities of detoxification and protective enzymes, which might have physiological costs. Additionally, azoxystrobin affected the expression of immune and nutrition genes, with a decreased expression trend in 21-day-old workers compared to the 1- and 8-day-old workers, leading to reduced resistance to external stressors and increased mortality rates. These findings provide important insights into the adverse effects of azoxystrobin on workers of different ages and emphasize the potential risks of this chemical to colony stability and individual health. This study recommends an urgent ban on such a harmful fungicide being used for fungi control in agriculture, especially during plant flowering. Full article

Pollen is bees’ primary source of proteins. Using pollen substitutes could reduce colony losses in areas with limited floral resources. In this study, we compared the effects of pollen substitutes made from intact proteins versus free amino acids on bee survival, as well as the levels of vitellogenin (vg), major royal jelly protein 1 (mrjp1), and deformed wing virus (DWV). Our study revealed no significant differences in vg mRNA levels between bees fed intact protein and free amino acid diets. However, mrjp1 mRNA levels were higher in bees fed free amino acid diets, suggesting that the availability of amino acids affects the expression of this nutritionally regulated gene differently. Thus, the combined expression of vg and mrjp1 could be used to assess the nutritional value of different pollen substitutes. Our results also indicate that bees fed diets rich in free amino acids exhibited high levels of DWV and increased mortality during the first week, even though they showed a high expression of genes related to good nutrition. In contrast, bees fed an intact protein diet showed the lowest DWV levels during the first two weeks, although viral infection increased afterward. These results suggest that ingested free amino acids are quickly absorbed in the intestine, transported in the hemolymph, and taken up by cells, where they can facilitate viral replication. On the other hand, ingested intact proteins may undergo slower digestion and gradual release of amino acids in the hemolymph, which may not trigger an overt DWV infection. Possible interactions among Varroa mites, DWV infection, and nutrition are also discussed. Full article

Honey bees are known for their wide global distribution, their ease of handling, and their economic and ecological value. However, they are often exposed to a wide variety of stress factors. Therefore, it is essential for beekeepers to maintain healthy bee colonies. In this context, a balanced diet is recommended to support the growth of strong and healthy honey bee colonies. The purpose of this review is therefore to provide an overview of the nutritional requirements of Apis mellifera and their importance for the maintenance of healthy bee colonies. An adequate diet includes the consumption of sufficient amounts of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, water, and essential sterols, and a diet based on multi-floral pollen is desirable. However, when honey bee colonies are located near agroecosystems with lower resource diversity, both brood rearing and colony longevity may decrease, making them more susceptible to parasites and diseases. On the other hand, efforts have been made to improve the health of honey bee colonies with the help of nutritional supplements consisting of a variety of components. Nevertheless, studies have shown that even with these supplements, a lack of nutrients can still be an issue for honey bee colonies. Furthermore, future research should focus on identifying nutritional supplements that can better replicate natural diet diversity and assessing long-term effects on honey bee colony resilience, especially in low-flowering areas. This review discusses the interaction between nutrient requirements and the effects of supplements on colony health. Full article

Global climate change, intensive agriculture, and anthropogenic pollution adversely affect flowering plants and the vitality of bee colonies. In nutritional stress conditions, bees deplete the food reserves of their fat body to sustain colony life. Beekeepers play a critical role by providing supplemental nutrient solutions. This study examines the effects of various sugar syrups on the fat body development of worker bees (Apis mellifera macedonica). The colonies were divided into one control group and five experimental groups: one fed with 1:1 sugar/water syrup, one with 2:1 sugar/water syrup, one with inverted syrup (Apiinvert), one with HFCS (high-fructose corn syrup) (Isosweet), and one with 1:1 honey/water syrup. Fat body development was assessed through meticulous dissection, and the degrees of development were documented using a USB digital microscope (Bresser). The results indicate significant seasonal variations in fat body development, with winter depletion and recovery influenced by supplemental feeding. Apiinvert and honey/water syrup promoted higher fat body stages, while Isosweet led to elevated fifth degrees of development but raised concerns about potential toxicity due to the hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) formation of improperly stored syrups. This study concludes that adequate supplemental feeding with easily digestible sugars is critical for promoting fat body development, enhancing winter survival, and ensuring overall colony health. These findings provide practical guidance for beekeepers to optimize feeding strategies and support resilient bee colonies. Full article

The One Health approach recognizes the interconnectedness between human, animal, and environmental health. Honeybees (Apis mellifera) embody this framework due to their crucial role in ecosystems, food production, and susceptibility to contaminants. Despite their suitability for a One Health approach, there is a lack of research showcasing the multidisciplinary impacts and contributions of bees. The objective of this work is to explore the application of the One Health approach to bees through a narrative review. This work highlights the contribution of bees to history and culture, economy, medicine, nutrition, food security, and the functioning of ecosystems. It also demonstrates that bee health is affected by land management, agricultural practices, environmental contaminants, nutritional resource availability, predators and diseases, weather, climate patterns, and beekeeping practices. This complex system is highly influenced by policy and beekeeping practices, which will benefit animal health directly and environmental and human health indirectly. Thus, the protection of bees should be prioritized. Full article

Honey bee brood (HBB) (Apis mellifera L.), a traditional protein source, has been studied for its nutritional value, but bio-functional properties and safety concerns have not been verified. This study examined the Antioxidant capacity, phytochemicals, minerals, and chemical pollutants in worker broods from several apiaries in Northern Thailand. HBB samples were lyophilized to evaluate antioxidant capacity using ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP assays, tests with water, and 70% ethanol extracts. Phytochemicals were identified using LC-QTOF-MS; pollutants were analyzed chromatographically, and minerals were determined using ICP-OES. The results showed that the evaluated antioxidant capacity of the ethanol extracts included DPPH 2.04–3.37 mg/mL, ABTS 21.22–33.91 mg/mL, and FRAP 50.07–104.15 mg AAE/100 g dry weight. Water extracts had outstanding antioxidant activities except for ABTS, with DPPH 10.67–84.97 mg/mL, ABTS 9.25–13.54 mg/mL, and FRAP 57.66–177.32 mgAAE/100 g dry weight. Total phenolics and flavonoids in ethanol extracts ranged from 488.95–508.87 GAE/100 g to 4.7–12.98 mg QE/g dry weight, respectively. Thirteen phytochemicals were detected and contained adequate mineral contents in the HBBs from different locations found, which were K, Ca, Mg, and Na, and no heavy metals or pollutants exceeded safe levels. These results imply that HBB from different apiaries in Northern Thailand is a nutritious food source with considerable antioxidants and a safe and sustainable food source. Full article

Nutrition is a key aspect influencing honey bee health and overwintering. Since honey bee seasonality in southern temperate climates represents a significant research gap, this study conducted long-term monitoring of honey bees in the Mediterranean (Sassari, Italy). Specifically, individual weight, fat body, and size measurements (head, thorax, abdomen, and total body) were recorded monthly so to detect changes in the nutrient storage of worker bees during an annual cycle. Data were analysed according to sampling date, climate (temperature, precipitation, and daylength), and flower diversity and were conducted for nurse and forager bees separately. The nutritional honey bee year-cycle generally followed the nectar flow and showed two critical timepoints: summer and winter dearth. A short cessation of activities in late fall/early winter coupled with an increase in nutrient storage indicated the presence of winter bees. Precipitation was found to play an important role in honey bee nutrition in the study area through its impacts on colony demography and plants in particular illustrating how climate change could pose a threat to European honey bee populations in the future. These results provide valuable insights into the nutritional dynamics of Apis mellifera ligustica in the Mediterranean that could support management decisions to improve overwintering success and prevent unnecessary colony losses. Full article