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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2026) | Viewed by 22719

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Dr. Cristina Matos

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ECT—School of Science and Technology, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
Interests: water; wastewater; reuse; rainwater harvesting; NbS
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Dear Colleagues,

Sponge cities are urban areas designed to absorb, capture, and manage stormwater runoff in a sustainable manner, mimicking the natural hydrological cycle. This concept is a response to rapid urbanization and the increased instances of flooding and water pollution.

Some key aspects of stormwater management in sponge cities include the permeable surfaces such as permeable pavements, green roofs, and porous sidewalks. These surfaces allow rainwater to infiltrate into the ground rather than running off into storm drains. Incorporating green infrastructure elements like rain gardens, bioswales, and vegetated swales helps to capture and absorb stormwater. These features not only manage stormwater but also provide additional benefits such as improving air quality, enhancing biodiversity, and reducing urban heat island effect. Water Harvesting and Reuse is another key aspect to promote the harvesting and reuse of stormwater for various purposes such as irrigation, toilet flushing, and groundwater recharge. This reduces the demand of potable water sources and helps to mitigate water scarcity. By implementing these strategies and technologies, sponge cities aim to mitigate the adverse impacts of urbanization on water resources, improve urban resilience to climate change, and create healthier and more sustainable urban environments.

Effective stormwater management in sponge cities requires integrated planning and public awareness and education.

We particularly invite contributions concerning the various aspects described in the summary.

Dr. Cristina Matos
Guest Editor

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Keywords

NbS
rainwater and stormwater management
stormwater quality
runoff reduction

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Related Special Issue

Stormwater Management in Sponge Cities, 2nd Edition in Water

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 3021 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Runoff Pollution from Roofs of Different Materials in Yinchuan City, China

by Xiangling Ding, Sisi Wang and Meng Jia

Water 2026, 18(5), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18050599 - 28 Feb 2026

Viewed by 378

Abstract

To evaluate the runoff pollution characteristics of roofs in an arid region, this study focused on Yinchuan City, China. It analyzed the runoff properties of various roof materials, including tile, asphalt, and color steel plate. Five rainfall events were monitored during 2024, with samples collected manually at roof pipe outlets and analyzed for suspended solids (SS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N). The results indicated that the concentration of pollutants in runoff from these roofs decreased as rainfall duration increased. The event mean concentration (EMC) of TN and COD in runoff from all three roof materials exceeded the Class V surface water quality standards in China. The first flush of pollutants in roof runoff followed a descending order: SS > COD > TP > TN > NH₃-N. Cluster analysis of three rainfall parameters—dry period, precipitation, and rainfall intensity—revealed that dry period exerted the strongest influence on runoff quality, indicating that the overall quality of roof runoff was primarily influenced by the cumulative effects of atmospheric deposition, with rainwater scouring being the secondary factor. These findings provide critical insights for designing stormwater management strategies and rainwater harvesting systems in arid and semi-arid cities, emphasizing the need to prioritize first-flush control and consider local climatic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stormwater Management in Sponge Cities)

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22 pages, 4207 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Impact of Submerged Zone Height on the Performance of Iron-Carbon Bioretention System

by Caiyun Yan, Jianqiang Zhou, Xichen Song, Xiaojuan Wang, Jiangtao He, Yawen Zhou, Jie Qin, Yifei Xiao, Tingting Zhang and Bigui Wei

Water 2026, 18(2), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18020200 - 12 Jan 2026

Viewed by 423

Abstract

Traditional bioretention systems have limited nitrogen and phosphorus removal capacity and insufficient operational stability. To address this issue, this study developed an iron-carbon bioretention system (IB) with varying submerged zone heights. The system’s performance in removing pollutants was systematically evaluated under different rainfall intensities, influent pollutant concentrations, and antecedent drying durations. In addition, the potential nitrification ability (PNA) of the substrate, denitrifying enzyme activity (DEA), and phosphorus species were analyzed to reveal the mechanisms responsible for its efficient nitrogen and phosphorus removal. The results showed that a submerged zone height of 400 mm enabled the IB system to achieve removal rates of 98.05% for

{NO}_{3}^{-}

-N and 91.67% for total nitrogen (TN). The removal rates of total phosphorus (TP) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) remained stable at over 91% and 92%, respectively. The submerged zone also created a stable anoxic environment, while the iron-carbon micro-electrolysis process continually consumed dissolved oxygen and provided Fe²⁺ as an electron donor, enhancing both the denitrification process and chemical phosphorus removal. Furthermore, the IB system demonstrated superior stability when dealing with high hydraulic and pollutant loads, as well as varying dry periods, with the effluent iron concentration maintained at low levels. This study confirms that iron-carbon micro-electrolysis and the incorporation of a submerged zone can significantly enhance the removal performance of bioretention systems, offering a reference for addressing nitrogen and phosphorus pollution in urban stormwater runoff. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stormwater Management in Sponge Cities)

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17 pages, 1916 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Performance of Green Roof Systems with Smart Cisterns: Balancing Stormwater Capture and Irrigation Supply

by Nandan H. Shetty, Mark Wang, Robert M. Elliott and Patricia J. Culligan

Water 2025, 17(20), 2987; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17202987 - 16 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1160

Abstract

Using five years of field monitoring data, this study compares two types of roof systems that combine green roofs, cisterns, and real-time control (RTC) strategies: one optimized to reduce stormwater runoff (a fully vegetated roof with cisterns operating under a “smart detention” [SD] logic that fully empties within 24 h), and one designed to balance architectural, economic, and structural tradeoffs (a half vegetated, half bare roof with cisterns operating under a “rainwater harvesting” [RWH] logic that partially drains in anticipation of rainfall while maintaining a reserve for green roof irrigation). Both configurations demonstrated strong stormwater performance, with cisterns improving roof retention by 10.2 to 13.0% over five years. For small to medium storms (under 25 mm), representing 71.2% of events, both strategies prevented more than 95% of runoff, while forecast accuracy primarily influenced larger events. Even with modest cistern sizing, the SD system captured 96.7% and the RWH system 95.8% of runoff from small to medium storms, approaching 100% assuming perfect weather forecasts. Irrigation analysis showed that RWH cisterns supplied ~51% of irrigation demand, increasing to ~70% under perfect forecasts. This study is among the first to compare stormwater and irrigation outcomes from side-by-side RTC-managed roof systems over multiple years. The results underscore that the mixed green/bare roof with RWH logic provides nearly equivalent stormwater benefits while offering added value through irrigation supply, reduced structural loading, and design flexibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stormwater Management in Sponge Cities)

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25 pages, 7427 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Combined Rainwater-Harvesting and Stormwater-Detention System with Passive Release for New Buildings in Taiwan

by Hsin-Yuan Tsai, Chia-Ming Fan and Chao-Hsien Liaw

Water 2025, 17(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020204 - 14 Jan 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4158

Abstract

Taiwan experiences abundant rainfall, but faces significant water shortages, making rainwater harvesting (RWH) a potential alternative water source. Additionally, extreme rainfall events strain urban flood control systems, highlighting the need for integrated stormwater management. To address these challenges, Taiwan mandates stormwater detention (SWD) in new buildings. However, the current RWH and SWD systems are designed independently, with no combined design guidelines available. This study proposes three combined RWH and SWD systems, series, parallel, and enhanced parallel with a valve using a passive release mechanism. System performance was evaluated through short-term and long-term simulations. Short-term simulations were conducted to ensure the system’s compliance with the domestic flood control design standards. These simulations assessed the peak flow mitigation and lag times for 5-, 10-, and 25-year design storms under four scenarios. Long-term simulations used historical rainfall data to analyze the differences in the combined systems and operational plans for continuous rainfall events. Three performance indicators—volumetric reliability, the stormwater retention ratio, and the stormwater detention ratio—were employed to assess water supply and the stormwater detention performance. The short-term simulation results revealed that the system performance was sensitive to the initial conditions. The series and parallel systems performed well, while the enhanced parallel system outperformed the others under specific initial conditions and valve operations. In contrast, long-term simulations revealed that the series and parallel systems achieved higher stormwater retention and a more stable performance than the enhanced parallel system. Among the three systems, the parallel system offers reduced installation space, lower costs, and easier maintenance, making it the recommended option for Taiwan. This study provides valuable guidance for designing combined RWH and SWD systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stormwater Management in Sponge Cities)

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24 pages, 3470 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Efficiency and Environmental Friendliness of Urban Stormwater Management by Enhancing the Water Filtration Model in Rain Gardens

by Maryna Kravchenko, Yuliia Trach, Roman Trach, Tetiana Tkachenko and Viktor Mileikovskyi

Water 2024, 16(10), 1316; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101316 - 7 May 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5125

Abstract

Rain gardens are used to solve urban problems related to the negative impact of stormwater. (1) Scientific contributions from different countries provide general guidelines for the design and operation of rain gardens in different geographical areas. Given the small spatial scale of rain gardens, the use of existing infiltration models often leads to design errors. (2) The purpose of this paper is to develop a hydrological model by introducing a system of equations that extends the ability to calculate the rate, flow rate and time of saturation of layers with moisture and rainwater leakage from the rain garden system. (3) The results obtained allow us to describe the dynamic processes of passage and saturation of layers of the rain garden at a certain point in time, which extends the ability to calculate the flow rate. It was established that the smaller the area of the rain garden compared to the area of the catchment basin, the faster it reaches its full saturation. Increasing the thickness of the rain garden layers allows for an increase in the efficiency of water retention at a lower value of the area ratio. (4) The practical significance of the results obtained is especially important for the correct description of hydrodynamics in the system and determining the optimal conditions for the effective functioning and management of the rain garden structure for any climatic region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stormwater Management in Sponge Cities)

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Review

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30 pages, 3379 KB

Open AccessReview

Review of Green Water Systems for Urban Flood Resilience: Literature and Codes

by Sebastián Valencia-Félix, Johan Anco-Valdivia, Alain Jorge Espinoza Vigil, Alejandro Víctor Hidalgo Valdivia and Carlos Sanchez-Carigga

Water 2024, 16(20), 2908; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202908 - 13 Oct 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 10307

Abstract

Achieving Urban Flood Resilience (UFR) is essential for modern societies, requiring the implementation of effective practices in different countries to mitigate hydrological events. Green Water Systems (GWSs) emerge as a promising alternative to achieve UFR, but they are still poorly explored and present varied definitions. This article aims to define GWSs within the framework of sustainable practices and propose a regulation that promotes UFR. Through a systematic review of existing definitions and an analysis of international regulations on sustainable urban drainage systems (SuDSs), this study uncovers the varied perceptions and applications of GWSs and their role in Blue–Green Infrastructure (BGI). Furthermore, the research puts forth a standardized definition of GWSs and emphasizes the implementation of SuDSs in Peru. This approach aims to address the existing knowledge gap and contribute to the advancement of sustainable urban infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stormwater Management in Sponge Cities)

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