Symmetry in Cryptography and Cybersecurity

A special issue of Symmetry (ISSN 2073-8994). This special issue belongs to the section "Computer".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 July 2026 | Viewed by 3421

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Associate Professor, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Information and Communication Technology, Soshanguve Campus, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0152, South Africa
Interests: wireless communication systems; cybersecurity; blockchain technology; Internet of Things; cloud computing; machine learning; AI
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

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Guest Editor
School of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 3209, South Africa
Interests: IoT; network security; AI

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Guest Editor
1. Department of Computer Science and Automatics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Bielsko-Biala, 43-309 Bielsko-Biala, Poland
2. Department of Computer Science, West Ukrainian National University, 46009 Ternopil, Ukraine
Interests: information security; cryptography; blockchain technologies; AI in cybersecurity; anti-money laundering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cybersecurity and cryptography are increasingly intertwined fields, where the principles of symmetry and asymmetry play pivotal roles. In cryptography, symmetry refers to the use of identical keys for both encryption and decryption (symmetric cryptography), while asymmetry involves the use of paired public and private keys (asymmetric cryptography). In cybersecurity, symmetry and asymmetry describe the balance or imbalance between attackers and defenders in terms of power, strategy, and resources.

This Special Issue explores the multifaceted concept of symmetry across both domains. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing secure systems, anticipating emerging threats, and enhancing defensive capabilities. We invite researchers, practitioners, and academics to contribute original research articles, reviews, and case studies that investigate the theoretical foundations, practical applications, and implications of symmetry and asymmetry in cryptography and cybersecurity.

Topics of interest include, but are not limited to:

  • Symmetric and asymmetric cryptography: Advances in algorithm design, implementation, and cryptanalysis of symmetric and asymmetric cryptographic systems;
  • Cryptographic protocols and key management: Exploring the role of symmetric and asymmetric techniques in secure communications and data protection;
  • Cyber warfare and strategic symmetry: Analysis of how symmetry and asymmetry shape cyber conflict dynamics among state and non-state actors;
  • Attack–defense asymmetry in cybersecurity: Investigating the challenges defenders face compared to attackers, and innovative strategies to reduce this gap;
  • AI and machine learning for symmetric defense: Leveraging intelligent systems to detect, predict, and respond to cyber threats in a balanced and adaptive manner;
  • Human-centric asymmetries: The influence of user behavior, awareness, and insider threats on system security and resilience;
  • Economic and policy aspects: Cost-benefit analysis of symmetric vs. asymmetric security models and implications for national and international cybersecurity policy;
  • Legal and ethical considerations: Frameworks for addressing the use of symmetric and asymmetric methods in surveillance, privacy, and cyber operations;
  • System resilience and recovery: Designing architectures and protocols that withstand and adapt to both symmetric and asymmetric threat landscapes.

Dr. Topside E. Mathonsi
Dr. Okuthe P. Kogeda
Dr. Ruslan Shevchuk
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Symmetry is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • symmetric cryptography
  • asymmetric cryptography
  • applied cryptography
  • cryptographic attacks
  • network and data security
  • software security
  • privacy preservation and secure protocol design
  • attack–defense asymmetry
  • cyber threat detection and mitigation
  • AI security and machine learning in cybersecurity

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

46 pages, 6372 KB  
Article
Sustainable Cryptography: Carbon Asymmetry in Partially Homomorphic Encryption in the Cloud
by Alper Ozpinar and Sefik Ilkin Serengil
Symmetry 2026, 18(5), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym18050832 - 12 May 2026
Viewed by 255
Abstract
Encryption protects data in the cloud but adds energy cost, especially for partially homomorphic encryption (PHE) schemes that allow computation on encrypted data. Their carbon footprint across cloud data center deployments remains underexplored. We benchmark eight PHE algorithms from the LightPHE open-source Python [...] Read more.
Encryption protects data in the cloud but adds energy cost, especially for partially homomorphic encryption (PHE) schemes that allow computation on encrypted data. Their carbon footprint across cloud data center deployments remains underexplored. We benchmark eight PHE algorithms from the LightPHE open-source Python library, including RSA, ElGamal, Exponential ElGamal, Paillier, Damgård–Jurik, Okamoto–Uchiyama, Goldwasser–Micali, and Elliptic Curve ElGamal, across six cloud environments, and use timing data as input to a carbon estimation model covering Scope 1, Scope 2, and Scope 3 emissions across ten data center configurations. We ground the energy model with a dedicated Intel RAPL calibration on bare-metal hardware using 30 repetitions per configuration. The calibration measures average CPU package power at 34.7 W and total system power at 48.4 W, showing that a fixed 150 W CPU-only assumption overestimates actual CPU power by a factor of 4.3. We present calibrated estimates alongside a 150 W server-class scenario and a sensitivity analysis across power, PUE, and grid carbon intensity. Elliptic curve schemes provide equivalent classical security at a fraction of the energy cost of RSA, and algorithm-specific mathematical structure drives order-of-magnitude differences in carbon output. These results reveal an asymmetry between security and carbon cost across PHE algorithms and establish a sustainable-cryptography baseline for future PQC-based homomorphic schemes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry in Cryptography and Cybersecurity)
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38 pages, 4932 KB  
Article
Adaptive Code-Controlled Steganography with Enhanced Robustness to JPEG Compression
by Nadiia Kazakova, Ruslan Shevchuk, Artem Sokolov, Denys Yevdokymov, Katarzyna Marczak and Balzhan Smailova
Symmetry 2026, 18(4), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym18040632 - 9 Apr 2026
Viewed by 622
Abstract
This paper addresses the problem of improving the robustness of image steganographic methods under lossy compression while preserving high perceptual quality and low computational complexity. The paper proposes an adaptive code-controlled steganographic method that enables spectrally selective embedding in the spatial domain through [...] Read more.
This paper addresses the problem of improving the robustness of image steganographic methods under lossy compression while preserving high perceptual quality and low computational complexity. The paper proposes an adaptive code-controlled steganographic method that enables spectrally selective embedding in the spatial domain through structured codewords. The proposed approach introduces block-level adaptivity in which the energy of the embedding codeword is dynamically selected according to the robustness characteristics of each image block. Instead of applying uniform embedding strength, the method determines the minimal codeword energy required to guarantee reliable message extraction under a predefined worst-case JPEG compression level. Experimental evaluation demonstrates that the proposed adaptive strategy significantly improves robustness to compression attacks while preserving high perceptual reliability and strong resistance to statistical steganalysis techniques. In particular, for JPEG quality factor (QF) = 50, the bit error rate is reduced to 1.25% while a high perceptual quality of 52.07 dB peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) is achieved. For stronger attack conditions, QF = 20, the method achieves 6.6% bit errors with a PSNR of 47.7 dB. Overall, the proposed adaptive energy selection provides up to 22.68% fewer errors or up to 6.05 dB higher PSNR compared to the classical code-controlled steganographic method, confirming its effectiveness for practical steganographic applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry in Cryptography and Cybersecurity)
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16 pages, 365 KB  
Article
A Probabilistic Framework for Forecasting Cryptographic Security Under Quantum and Classical Threats
by José R. Rosas-Bustos, Mark Pecen, Jesse Van Griensven Thé, Roydon Andrew Fraser, Nadeem Said, Sebastian Ratto Valderrama and Andy Thanos
Symmetry 2026, 18(2), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym18020297 - 6 Feb 2026
Viewed by 881
Abstract
This paper presents a probabilistic, multi-layered framework designed to forecast the longevity and security of cryptographic systems under the dual pressures of classical and quantum computational threats. The model integrates thermodynamic decay analogies, stochastic transitions via Hidden Markov Models, and an adapted financial [...] Read more.
This paper presents a probabilistic, multi-layered framework designed to forecast the longevity and security of cryptographic systems under the dual pressures of classical and quantum computational threats. The model integrates thermodynamic decay analogies, stochastic transitions via Hidden Markov Models, and an adapted financial option pricing method to quantify cryptographic degradation, strategic risk, and transition readiness. This framework can guide standardization roadmaps, cipher retirement, or quantum-migration planning, guiding proactive, instead of reactive, crypto agility. Furthermore, it provides a quantitative methodology to complement the current opinions expressed in surveys, as well as a qualitative approach to cryptographic security risk projections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry in Cryptography and Cybersecurity)
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16 pages, 2189 KB  
Article
The Butterfly Protocol: Secure Symmetric Key Exchange and Mutual Authentication via Remote QKD Nodes
by Sergejs Kozlovičs, Elīna Kalniņa, Juris Vīksna, Krišjānis Petručeņa and Edgars Rencis
Symmetry 2026, 18(1), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym18010153 - 14 Jan 2026
Viewed by 652
Abstract
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a process to establish a symmetric key between two parties using the principles of quantum mechanics. Currently, commercial QKD systems are still expensive, they require specific infrastructure, and they are impractical for deployment in portable or resource-constrained devices. [...] Read more.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a process to establish a symmetric key between two parties using the principles of quantum mechanics. Currently, commercial QKD systems are still expensive, they require specific infrastructure, and they are impractical for deployment in portable or resource-constrained devices. In this article, we introduce the Butterfly Protocol (and its extended version) that enables QKD to be offered as a service to non-QKD-capable (portable or IoT) devices. Our key contributions include (1) resilience to the compromise of any single classical link, (2) protection against malicious QKD users, (3) implicit mutual authentication between users without relying on large post-quantum certificates, and (4) the Double Butterfly extension, which secures communication even when the underlying QKD network cannot be fully trusted. We also demonstrate how to integrate the Butterfly Protocol into TLS 1.3 and provide its initial security analysis. We present preliminary performance results and discuss the main bottlenecks in the Butterfly Protocol implementation. We believe that our solution represents a practical step toward integrating QKD into classical networks and extending its use to portable devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry in Cryptography and Cybersecurity)
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