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SPAD-Based Sensors and Techniques for Enhanced Sensing Applications

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Optical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 September 2025 | Viewed by 844

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Center for Sensors & Devices, Integrated Readout ASICs & Image Sensors, Via Sommarive 18-Povo, 38123 Trento, Italy
Interests: cmos image sensors; spad; single-photon detector
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38123 Trento, Italy
Interests: Single-photon Avalanche Diode; Time-to-digital Converter; 3D Images

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The integration of Single Photon Avalanche Diodes in standard CMOS processes (CMOS-SPADs) provides unique advantages over other single photon detection technologies such as photo-multiplier tubes or superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors. Namely, CMOS SPADs can be arranged into 1- or 2-D arrays of channels working in parallel, their output signal can be locally processed (e.g., by highly accurate timing circuits) and they inherit all the advantages of CMOS technology, such as compact size, the capability to operate over a wide temperature range, and the possibility to guarantee mass volume productions at a low cost.

For these reasons, CMOS-SPADs are now replacing other single-photon technologies in many time-resolved and other enhanced sensing applications, including depth sensing/LiDAR, medical imaging (FLIM, Raman spectroscopy, PET), high dynamic range imaging and quantum sensing (e.g., super-resolution microscopy, ghost imaging, non-line-of-sight imaging).

This special Issue addresses recent advancements in the following areas:

  • CMOS-SPAD architectures for enhanced sensing applications.
  • Innovative techniques for the processing of data generated by CMOS-SPAD architectures.
  • Circuits for CMOS-SPAD sensors (e.g., time-to-digital converters, DCDC converters).
  • Experimental activity using CMOS-SPADs.

Dr. Leonardo Gasparini
Dr. Alessandro Tontini
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • single-photon avalanche diode arrays (SPAD)
  • time-resolved imagers
  • photon counting imagers
  • time-of-flight (ToF) sensors and systems
  • LiDAR
  • fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM)
  • Raman spectroscopy
  • positron emission tomography (PET)
  • time-domain near infra-red spectroscopy (TD-NIRS)/diffuse optical tomography (DOT)
  • high dynamic range (HDR) imaging
  • quantum imaging super-resolution spectroscopy
  • sub-shot noise imaging
  • ghost imaging
  • non-line-of-sight (NLoS) imaging
  • time-to-digital converters

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Published Papers (1 paper)

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Research

15 pages, 2420 KiB  
Article
Performance Comparison of Multipixel Biaxial Scanning Direct Time-of-Flight Light Detection and Ranging Systems With and Without Imaging Optics
by Konstantin Albert, Manuel Ligges, Andre Henschke, Jennifer Ruskowski, Menaka De Zoysa, Susumu Noda and Anton Grabmaier
Sensors 2025, 25(10), 3229; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25103229 - 21 May 2025
Viewed by 217
Abstract
The laser pulse detection probability of a scanning direct time-of-flight light detection and ranging (LiDAR) measurement is evaluated based on the optical signal distribution on a multipixel single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array. These detectors intrinsically suffer from dead-times after the successful detection [...] Read more.
The laser pulse detection probability of a scanning direct time-of-flight light detection and ranging (LiDAR) measurement is evaluated based on the optical signal distribution on a multipixel single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array. These detectors intrinsically suffer from dead-times after the successful detection of a single photon and, thus, allow only for limited counting statistics when multiple returning laser photons are imaged on a single pixel. By blurring the imaged laser spot, the transition from single-pixel statistics with high signal intensity to multipixel statistics with less signal intensity is examined. Specifically, a comparison is made between the boundary cases in which (i) the returning LiDAR signal is focused through optics onto a single pixel and (ii) the detection is performed without lenses using all available pixels on the sensor matrix. The omission of imaging optics reduces the overall system size and minimizes optical transfer losses, which is crucial given the limited laser emission power due to safety standards. The investigation relies on a photon rate model for interfering (background) and signal light, applied to a simulated first-photon sensor architecture. For single-shot scenarios that reflect the optimal use of the time budget in scanning LiDAR systems, the lens-less and blurred approaches can achieve comparable or even superior results to the focusing system. This highlights the potential of fully solid-state scanning LiDAR systems utilizing optical phase arrays or multidirectional laser chips. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SPAD-Based Sensors and Techniques for Enhanced Sensing Applications)
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