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Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Electronic Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2025 | Viewed by 17515

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Nerija Žurauskienė

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Guest Editor

Department of Functional Materials and Electronics, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Sauletekio Ave. 3, 10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: magnetic field sensors; magnetic thin films, nanostructures and their technologies; magnetoresistive materials; high pulsed magnetic fields; high pulsed electric fields; electroporation of biological cells
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Voitech Stankevič

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Guest Editor

Department of Functional Materials and Electronics, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Sauletekio Ave. 3, 10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: lanthanum compounds; magnetoresistance; nanostructured materials; strontium compounds; MOCVD; magnetic thin films

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Magnetic sensors play a crucial role in various applications as they serve as the key component for detecting and monitoring mechanical and electrical properties such as position, force, and current. Their durability makes them highly suitable for challenging environments and they find wide usage in industrial and automotive sectors. However, new application areas using magnetic sensors are increasingly appearing, including magnetic biosensors, current sensing, robotics, and many others. To meet the demands of these new applications, researchers are exploring novel materials, circuits, and measurement techniques for magnetic sensors.

This Special Issue focuses on magnetic sensors and their technical applications, with the aim of presenting the latest research findings and advancements in magnetic sensor technology and measurement techniques. Novel approaches to the design and fabrication of the sensors, including micro- and nano-sensors, and exploration of their potential applications in industries and medicine as well as magnetic diagnostics in harsh environments such as free-electron lasers, electromagnetic launchers, or high-field pulsed magnets, are welcome. Additionally, this issue is dedicated to advanced testing and calibration methods of the sensors and adjusting their design and parameters to meet user needs. Therefore, we invite the international community from academia and industry to submit articles reporting on recent advances in magnetic sensor materials, properties, device concepts, sensor fabrication and testing techniques, calibration and control systems, as well as novel measurement techniques.

The Special Issue “Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques” covers a wide range of topics, which include, but are not limited, to:

New materials for magnetic field sensors;
New applications of magnetic sensors;
Circuits and operating methodologies of the sensors;
Design, fabrication, testing and calibration of sensors;
Magnetic field measurement techniques, including measurement in harsh environments;
Integrated magnetic sensors;
Simulation.

Prof. Dr. Nerija Žurauskienė
Prof. Dr. Voitech Stankevič
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

magnetic materials
magnetic films and structures
magnetoresistive sensors
Hall sensors
magnetic position sensors
electromagnetic launchers
pulsed-field magnets
electromagnetic metal forming and welding
micro- and nano-scale sensors in engineering applications
calibration and self-calibration methods
magnetic sensors arrays and systems
high-frequency sensors
magnetic field measurement techniques
high magnetic field measurements
magnetic field simulation methods

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

20 pages, 2969 KB

Open AccessArticle

A New Device for Measuring Trunk Diameter Variations Using Magnetic Amorphous Wires

by Cristian Fosalau

Sensors 2025, 25(14), 4449; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25144449 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 361

Abstract

Measuring the small tree trunk variations during the day–night cycle, seasonal cycles, as well as those caused by the plant’s growth and health regime is a very important action in horticulture or forestry because by analyzing the collected data, assessments can be made on the health of the trees, but also on the climatic conditions and changes in a certain region. This can be performed with devices called dendrometers. This paper presents a new type of approach to these measurement types in which the trunk volume changes are highly sensitively converted into the axial stress on sensitive elements made of magnetic materials in wire form in which the giant stress impedance effect occurs. Finally, by electronic processing of the signals provided by the sensitive elements, digital words with a decimal value proportional to the diameter variations are obtained. This paper presents the operating principle, the constructive details and the experimental results obtained by testing the device in the laboratory and in-field. The proposed dendrometer, compared to those available commercially, has the advantage of good resolution and sensitivity, good immunity to temperature variations, the possibility of transmitting the result remotely, robustness and low price. Some metrological parameters obtained from the experimental testing are the following: resolution 1.6 µm, linearity 1.4%, measurement range 0 to 5 mm, temperature coefficient 0.012%/°C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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24 pages, 11160 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Neural Network-Based Design of Planar Coils for Proximity Sensing Applications

by Abderraouf Lalla, Paolo Di Barba, Sławomir Hausman and Maria Evelina Mognaschi

Sensors 2025, 25(14), 4429; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25144429 - 16 Jul 2025

Viewed by 2099

Abstract

This study develops a deep learning procedure able to identify a planar coil geometry, given the desired magnetic field map. This approach demonstrates its capability to discover suitable coil designs that produce desired field characteristics with high accuracy and efficiency. The generated coils show strong agreement with target magnetic fields, enabling manufacturers to achieve simpler structures and improved performance. This method is suitable for inductive proximity sensors, wireless power transfer systems, and electromagnetic compatibility applications, offering a powerful and flexible tool for advanced planar coil design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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10 pages, 2297 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Full-Wave Simulation of a Solenoid RF Coil for Small Animal Magnetic Resonance Imaging with a Clinical Scanner

by Giulio Giovannetti, Francesca Frijia, Alessandra Flori and Vincenzo Positano

Sensors 2025, 25(9), 2673; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25092673 - 23 Apr 2025

Viewed by 635

Abstract

Clinical research groups rarely have easy access to dedicated animal Magnetic Resonance (MR) systems. For this reason, dedicated hardware has to be developed to optimize small animal imaging on clinical scanners. In MR systems, radiofrequency (RF) coils are key components in the acquisition process of the MR signal, and the design of hand-crafted, organ-specific RF coils can be a constraint in many research projects. Accurate design and simulation processes enable the optimization of RF coil performance for a given application by avoiding trial-and-error approaches. This paper describes the full-wave simulation of a solenoidal coil for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) using the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. Such a simulator enables the estimation of the coil’s magnetic field pattern in a loaded condition, the coil inductance, and the sample-induced resistance. The resulting accuracy is verified with data acquired with a solenoid prototype designed for small animal experiments with a 3T MRI clinical scanner. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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17 pages, 6962 KB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Field Meter Based on CMR-B-Scalar Sensor for Measurement of Microsecond Duration Magnetic Field Pulses

by Pavel Piatrou, Voitech Stankevic, Nerija Zurauskiene, Skirmantas Kersulis, Mindaugas Viliunas, Algirdas Baskys, Martynas Sapurov, Vytautas Bleizgys, Darius Antonovic, Valentina Plausinaitiene, Martynas Skapas, Vilius Vertelis and Borisas Levitas

Sensors 2025, 25(6), 1640; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25061640 - 7 Mar 2025

Viewed by 838

Abstract

This study presents a system for precisely measuring pulsed magnetic fields with high amplitude and microsecond duration with minimal interference. The system comprises a probe with an advanced magnetic field sensor and a measurement unit for signal conversion, analysis, and digitization. The sensor uses a thin nanostructured manganite La-Sr-Mn-O film exhibiting colossal magnetoresistance, which enables precise magnetic field measurement independent of its orientation. Films with different compositions were optimized and tested in pulsed magnetic fields. The measurement unit includes a pulsed voltage generator, an ADC, a microcontroller, and an amplifier unit. Two versions of the measurement unit were developed: one with a separate amplifier unit configured for the sensor positioned more than 1 m away from the measurement unit, and the other with an integrated amplifier for the sensor positioned at a distance of less than 0.5 m. A bipolar pulsed voltage supplying the sensor minimized the parasitic effects of the electromotive force induced in the probe circuit. The data were transmitted via a fiber optic cable to a PC equipped with a special software for processing and recording. Tests with 20–30 μs pulses up to 15 T confirmed the effectiveness of the system for measuring high pulsed magnetic fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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12 pages, 2053 KB

Open AccessArticle

Extension to the Jiles–Atherton Hysteresis Model Using Gaussian Distributed Parameters for Quenched and Tempered Engineering Steels

by Alasdair Regan, John Wilson and Anthony J. Peyton

Sensors 2025, 25(5), 1328; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25051328 - 21 Feb 2025

Viewed by 949

Abstract

The Jiles–Atherton (J–A) model has seen extensive use for modelling the hysteresis behaviour of ferromagnetic materials due to its computational efficiency, simplicity of use, and small number of physically related parameters. However, in this work, the application of the J–A model to hysteresis curves obtained from experimental measurements for as-quenched and quenched-and-tempered engineering steels is considered. It has been demonstrated that the current form of the J–A model is not capable of representing certain observed features in the obtained hysteresis curves of these steels, in particular, the rapid narrowing of the loops seen for as-quenched steels and the sharp corners seen for quenched-and-tempered steels. This work has shown that a superior fit to the major loops for such steels can be obtained by applying Gaussian variations with respect to the applied magnetic field to the model parameters. The findings are supported by experimental results from engineering steels used in the oil and gas industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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13 pages, 25707 KB

Open AccessArticle

Distortion-Free Magnetic Tracking of Metal Instruments in Image-Guided Interventions

by Eoin Higgins, Daragh Crowley, Christian van den Bosch and Pádraig Cantillon-Murphy

Sensors 2024, 24(16), 5364; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165364 - 20 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1450

Abstract

Electromagnetic tracking (EMT) can benefit image-guided interventions in cases where line of sight is unavailable. However, EMT can suffer from electromagnetic distortion in the presence of metal instruments. Metal instruments are widely used in laparoscopic surgery, ENT surgery, arthroscopy and many other clinical applications. In this work, we investigate the feasibility of tracking such metal instruments by placing the inductive sensor within the instrument shaft. We propose a magnetostatic model of the field within the instrument, and verify the results experimentally for frequencies from 6 kHz to 60 kHz. The impact of the instrument’s dimensions, conductivity and transmitting field frequency is quantified for ranges representative of typical metal instruments used in image-guided interventions. We then performed tracking using the open-source Anser EMT system and quantify the error caused by the presence of the rod as a function of the frequency of the eight emitting coils for the system. The work clearly demonstrates why smaller tool diameters (less than 8 mm) are less susceptible to distortion, as well as identifying optimal frequencies (1 kHz to 2 kHz) for transmitter design to minimise for distortion in larger instruments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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17 pages, 53794 KB

Open AccessArticle

50 Hz Temporal Magnetic Field Monitoring from High-Voltage Power Lines: Sensor Design and Experimental Validation

by Kenneth Deprez, Tom Van de Steene, Leen Verloock, Emmeric Tanghe, Liesbeth Gommé, Mart Verlaek, Michel Goethals, Karen van Campenhout, David Plets and Wout Joseph

Sensors 2024, 24(16), 5325; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165325 - 17 Aug 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2370

Abstract

A low-cost, tri-axial 50 Hz magnetic field monitoring sensor was designed, calibrated and verified. The sensor was designed using off-the-shelf components and commercially available coils. It can measure 50 Hz magnetic fields originating from high-voltage power lines from 0.08 µT to 364 µT, divided into two measurement ranges. The sensor was calibrated both on-board and in-lab. The on-board calibration takes the circuit attenuation, noise and parasitic components into account. In the in-lab calibration, the output of the developed sensor is compared to the benchmark, a narrowband EHP-50. The sensor was then verified in situ under high-voltage power lines at two independent measurement locations. The measured field values during this validation were between 0.10 µT and 13.43 µT, which is in agreement with other reported measurement values under high-voltage power lines in literature. The results were compared to the benchmark, for which average deviations of 6.2% and 1.4% were found, at the two independent measurement locations. Furthermore, fields up to 113.3 µT were measured in a power distribution sub-station to ensure that both measurement ranges were verified. Our network, four active sensors in the field, had high uptimes of 96%, 82%, 81% and, 95% during a minimum 3-month interval. In total, over 6 million samples were gathered with field values that ranged from 0.08 µT to 45.48 µT. This suggests that the proposed solution can be used for this monitoring, although more extensive long-term testing with more sensors is required to confirm the uptime under multiple circumstances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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15 pages, 4789 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Planar Hall Effect Magnetic Sensors with Extended Field Range

by Daniel Lahav, Moty Schultz, Shai Amrusi, Asaf Grosz and Lior Klein

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4384; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134384 - 5 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2918

Abstract

The magnetic field range in which a magnetic sensor operates is an important consideration for many applications. Elliptical planar Hall effect (EPHE) sensors exhibit outstanding equivalent magnetic noise (EMN) on the order of

pT / \sqrt{Hz}

, which makes them promising for many [...] Read more.

pT / \sqrt{Hz}

, which makes them promising for many applications. Unfortunately, the current field range in which EPHE sensors with

pT / \sqrt{Hz}

EMN can operate is sub-mT, which limits their potential use. Here, we fabricate EPHE sensors with an increased field range and measure their EMN. The larger field range is obtained by increasing the uniaxial shape-induced anisotropy parallel to the long axis of the ellipse. We present measurements of EPHE sensors with magnetic anisotropy which ranges between 12 Oe and 120 Oe and show that their EMN at 10 Hz changes from 800

pT / \sqrt{Hz}

to 56

nT / \sqrt{Hz}

. Furthermore, we show that the EPHE sensors behave effectively as single magnetic domains with negligible hysteresis. We discuss the potential use of EPHE sensors with extended field range and compare them with sensors that are widely used in such applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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16 pages, 5860 KB

Open AccessArticle

Single-Track Magnetic Tape Absolute Position Sensor with Self-Adaptivity

by Zoltán Kántor and Attila Szabó

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4220; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134220 - 28 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1557

Abstract

In this study, we demonstrate a single-track magnetic code tape-based absolute position sensor system. Unlike traditional dual-track systems, our method simplifies manufacturing and avoids crosstalk between tracks, offering higher tolerance to alignment errors. The sensing system employs an array of magnetic field sensing elements that recognize the bit sequence encoded on the tape. This approach allows for accurate position determination even when the number of sensing elements is fewer than the number of bits covered, and without the need for specific spacing between sensing elements and bit length. We demonstrate the system’s ability to learn and adapt to various magnetic code patterns, including those that are irregular or have been altered. Our method can identify and localize the sensed magnetic field pattern directly within a self-learned magnetic field map, providing robust performance in diverse conditions. This self-adaptive capability enhances operational safety and reliability, as the system can continue functioning even when the magnetic tape is misaligned or has undergone changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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12 pages, 4572 KB

Open AccessArticle

Angular Position Sensor Based on Anisotropic Magnetoresistive and Anomalous Nernst Effect

by Jiaqi Wang, Hang Xie and Yihong Wu

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 1011; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24031011 - 4 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1937

Abstract

Magnetic position sensors have extensive applications in various industrial sectors and consumer products. However, measuring angles in the full range of 0–360° in a wide field range using a single magnetic sensor remains a challenge. Here, we propose a magnetic position sensor based on a single Wheatstone bridge structure made from a single ferromagnetic layer. By measuring the anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) signals from the bridge and two sets of anomalous Nernst effect (ANE) signals from the transverse ports on two perpendicular Wheatstone bridge arms concurrently, we show that it is possible to achieve 0–360° angle detection using a single bridge sensor. The combined use of AMR and ANE signals allows a mean angle error in the range of 0.51–1.05° within a field range of 100 Oe–10,000 Oe to be achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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Review

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27 pages, 1061 KB

Open AccessReview

Instruments and Measurement Techniques to Assess Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields

by Phoka C. Rathebe and Mota Kholopo

Sensors 2025, 25(15), 4866; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25154866 - 7 Aug 2025

Viewed by 526

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive evaluation and selection framework for extremely low-frequency electromagnetic field (ELF-EMF) measurement instruments. Recognizing the diversity of application environments and technical constraints, the framework addresses the challenges of selecting appropriate tools for specific scenarios. It integrates a structured, quantitative approach through a weighted scoring matrix that evaluates instrumentation across six criteria: monitoring duration, sensitivity, environmental adaptability, biological/regulatory relevance, usability, and cost. Complementing this is a logic-based flowchart that visually guides decision-making based on user-defined operational needs. The framework is applied to a realistic occupational case study, demonstrating its effectiveness in producing evidence-based, scenario-sensitive instrument recommendations. This method provides stakeholders with a transparent and adaptable tool for ELF-EMF device selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Field Sensing and Measurement Techniques)

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