Religions

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Open AccessEditorial

Editor’s Introduction: Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice

by Kent R. Kerley

Religions 2018, 9(9), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9090260 - 30 Aug 2018

Viewed by 3189

Abstract

The scientific study of religion is a relatively recent development in colleges and universities
around the world[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

15 pages, 1427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Religious Liberty in Prisons under the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act following Holt v Hobbs: An Empirical Analysis

by Lewis M. Wasserman, John P. Connolly and Kent R. Kerley

Religions 2018, 9(7), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9070210 - 7 Jul 2018

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5671

Abstract

Religion in the United States remains a consistent source of conflict not only because of the breadth and depth of personal religious commitment, but also because of guarantees from the United States Constitution. The First Amendment protects religious Free Exercise but also constrains [...] Read more.

Religion in the United States remains a consistent source of conflict not only because of the breadth and depth of personal religious commitment, but also because of guarantees from the United States Constitution. The First Amendment protects religious Free Exercise but also constrains federal, state, and local governments from establishing official government religions, endorsing religions or religion itself. Despite the risk of potential conflicts with the constitution’s text, Congress has supported laws that expand religious liberty. One such example is the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (2000), which significantly enhanced prisoners’ right to religious exercise above the minimum provided by the First Amendment. In the 2015 case of Holt v. Hobbs, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a Muslim prisoner who had been denied his request for religious accommodations under RLUIPA because the prison failed to satisfy the act’s strict scrutiny standard before it denied accommodations to a prisoner to practice his faith. Via an analysis of case law since Holt v. Hobbs was decided in January 2015 until March 2018, we investigate the extent to which Holt has affected judicial voting in RLUIPA cases and how such voting may have been influenced by judges’ ideological dispositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

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19 pages, 491 KiB

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The Effects of Provincial and Individual Religiosity on Deviance in China: A Multilevel Modeling Test of the Moral Community Thesis

by Xiuhua Wang and Sung Joon Jang

Religions 2018, 9(7), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9070202 - 27 Jun 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4344

Abstract

This paper examines the moral community thesis in the secular context of China. Using multilevel logistic regression, we test (1) whether both individual- (measured by affiliation with Islam, Buddhism and Christianity) and aggregate-level religiosity (measured by the number of mosques, Buddhist temples, and [...] Read more.

This paper examines the moral community thesis in the secular context of China. Using multilevel logistic regression, we test (1) whether both individual- (measured by affiliation with Islam, Buddhism and Christianity) and aggregate-level religiosity (measured by the number of mosques, Buddhist temples, and churches per 10,000 people in province) are inversely related to law and rule violations at the individual level and (2) whether province-level religiosity enhances the inverse relationship between individual religiosity and deviant behaviors. Results from the 2010 China General Social Survey and the Spatial Explorer of Religions provide some support for the moral community proposition that contextual religiosity affects deviance at the individual level. Specifically, we find provincial as well as individual level of Islam to be inversely related with the violation of the law and rules. However, we find that neither the provincial level of Christianity and Buddhism nor cross-level interaction is related to deviance. The only exception, cross-level interaction involving the individual and provincial level of Islam, is in the opposite direction (i.e., positive, not negative). The implications of our findings are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

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17 pages, 235 KiB

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Faith-Based Mentoring of Ex-Felons in Higher Education: Colson Scholars Reflect on Their Transitions

by Judith A. Leary

Religions 2018, 9(6), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060197 - 20 Jun 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4586

Abstract

This qualitative study employs the framework of Schlossberg’s Transition Theory to offer readers an introduction into recently-conducted research on ex-felons transitioning into, through, and out of higher education within the context of the Colson Scholarship program at Wheaton College¹, in Wheaton, [...] Read more.

This qualitative study employs the framework of Schlossberg’s Transition Theory to offer readers an introduction into recently-conducted research on ex-felons transitioning into, through, and out of higher education within the context of the Colson Scholarship program at Wheaton College¹, in Wheaton, Illinois. Through the material gathered from personal interviews of six completed Colson Scholars, faith-based mentors were consistently seen as significant sources of support in each stage of the college-going transition. Faith-based mentors played an important role in the outcomes of, specifically, faith-worldview development and emotional development. This article seeks to illuminate the problem of the lack of supportive mentors for ex-offender populations in our communities, and to illustrate how those mentors might be found in faith-based organizations, institutions, and houses of worship, as Johnson (Johnson 2011) asserted and also what gains could result from the involvement of faith-based mentors in the lives of correctional populations post-release. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

15 pages, 215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Religion and Crime Studies: Assessing What Has Been Learned

by Melvina Sumter, Frank Wood, Ingrid Whitaker and Dianne Berger-Hill

Religions 2018, 9(6), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060193 - 18 Jun 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 20427

Abstract

This paper provides a review of the literature that assesses the relationship between religion and crime. Research on the relationship between religion and crime indicates that certain aspects of religion reduces participation in criminal activity. A review of the literature indicates religion reduces [...] Read more.

This paper provides a review of the literature that assesses the relationship between religion and crime. Research on the relationship between religion and crime indicates that certain aspects of religion reduces participation in criminal activity. A review of the literature indicates religion reduces participation in criminal activity in two broad ways. First, religion seems to operate at a micro level. Studies have pointed to how religious beliefs are associated with self-control. Second, researches have examined the social control aspects of religion. In particular, how factors such as level of participation and social support from such participation reduces criminal activity. Likewise, findings suggest that although there has been a sizable number of studies and diverse interests of researchers examining the religion/crime nexus, the research has not identified which aspects of religion have the strongest influence on crime reduction. In addition, the specific ways in which these factors are associated with crime reduction have not been comprehensively identified. Similarly, more than 40 years of empirical scholarship suggests that religion suppresses criminal behavior. Nevertheless, these findings remain controversial as the literature neither accentuates the mechanisms of religion responsible for suppressing criminal behavior, nor does the literature reject the spuriousness of the religion-crime association relative to mediating effects of self-control and social control. Finally, our review suggests that methodological constraints infringe on the capacity for sociological and criminological to accurately ascertain the validity of the religion-crime nexus, often generating mixed or inconclusive findings on the religion-crime association. Our paper concludes with recommendations for future empirical scholarship that examines the religion-crime nexus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

13 pages, 881 KiB

Open AccessArticle

God and Guns: Examining Religious Influences on Gun Control Attitudes in the United States

by Stephen M. Merino

Religions 2018, 9(6), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060189 - 14 Jun 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 27923

Abstract

Mass shootings in the United States have generated significant media coverage and public concern, invigorating debates over gun control. Media coverage and academic research on gun control attitudes and reactions to mass shootings have paid little attention to the role of religion. Recent [...] Read more.

Mass shootings in the United States have generated significant media coverage and public concern, invigorating debates over gun control. Media coverage and academic research on gun control attitudes and reactions to mass shootings have paid little attention to the role of religion. Recent research sheds light on the complex relationship between religion and guns, including higher rates of gun ownership and stronger opposition to gun control among white evangelical Protestants. Using nationally representative survey data, this study examines the relationship between religious identity, gun ownership, and support for a range of gun control policies, including proposed remedies for preventing mass shootings. Compared with individuals from other religious traditions, evangelical Protestants are most opposed to stricter gun control laws and enforcement, even with statistical controls for gun ownership and demographic characteristics. Rather, they favor individualistic solutions and putting more emphasis on religious values in their social surroundings. I discuss how these findings reflect the cultural tools evangelical Protestants use to construct their understandings of social problems, including gun violence, and the broader implications for gun policy in the United States. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

19 pages, 279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Existential and Virtuous Effects of Religiosity on Mental Health and Aggressiveness among Offenders

by Sung Joon Jang, Byron R. Johnson, Joshua Hays, Michael Hallett and Grant Duwe

Religions 2018, 9(6), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060182 - 6 Jun 2018

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5804

Abstract

Although prior research tends to show that religion has a salutary effect on mental health and a preventive effect on crime, studies explaining the religious effect, particularly those on offenders, have been limited. To address the issue, we examine whether religiosity is inversely [...] Read more.

Although prior research tends to show that religion has a salutary effect on mental health and a preventive effect on crime, studies explaining the religious effect, particularly those on offenders, have been limited. To address the issue, we examine whether religiosity is inversely related to negative emotions and aggressiveness among prison inmates. Additionally, we assess whether the relationships are attributable to an inmate’s sense of meaning and purpose in life and/or their virtues. Specifically, we hypothesize that religiosity is inversely related to feelings of depression and anxiety and the intention of engaging in interpersonal aggression. We also hypothesize these relationships to be mediated by existential belief in life’s meaning and purpose and virtues (compassion, forgiveness, gratitude, purpose of God, and gratitude to God). We tested our hypotheses using survey data collected from a random sample of male inmates from three prisons in Texas, applying latent-variable structural equation modeling. We found that the existential belief explained the effect of religiosity on negative emotional states and intended aggression. In addition, forgiveness and gratitude mediated the effect on state anxiety, whereas purpose in God and gratitude to God mediated the effect on state depression. Substantive and practical implications of our findings are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

13 pages, 259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Criminal Desistance Narratives of Young People in the West of Scotland: Understanding Spirituality and Criminogenic Constraints

by Chris Holligan and Robert McLean

Religions 2018, 9(6), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060177 - 28 May 2018

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3632

Abstract

In our qualitative study of urban youth living in the West of Scotland, we argue that religion and spirituality give personal sustenance and hope from which a process of desistance can emerge. Religious worship offers a ‘site’ for undermining reoffending through the availability [...] Read more.

In our qualitative study of urban youth living in the West of Scotland, we argue that religion and spirituality give personal sustenance and hope from which a process of desistance can emerge. Religious worship offers a ‘site’ for undermining reoffending through the availability and adoption of socially supportive bonds. Desistance can occur through the development of different bonds and the recognition of transcendental authority. The results endorse the protective role of spirituality in desistance in relation to disadvantaged young people whose lives have been impacted by crime. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

16 pages, 213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spiritual Occlusion and Systemic Integrity: Legal Evaluations of Due Process Protections and Freedom of Religious Expression and Practices Safeguards

by Jason R. Jolicoeur and Amy Memmer

Religions 2018, 9(6), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060173 - 26 May 2018

Viewed by 3194

Abstract

As is the case with other constitutionally protected rights, the freedom of religion is not unlimited nor without restriction or constraint. Rather, the courts have long held that the state may have legitimate reasons for placing reasonable restrictions on the otherwise free exercise [...] Read more.

As is the case with other constitutionally protected rights, the freedom of religion is not unlimited nor without restriction or constraint. Rather, the courts have long held that the state may have legitimate reasons for placing reasonable restrictions on the otherwise free exercise of religious practice. The courts have also held that the state cannot restrict religious practice in a capricious or gratuitous manner. However, the courts have also held that individuals have a constitutional right to due process legal protections. In many instances, these two freedoms exist independently of each other. In instances when they intersect, conflict may result from one right seeking hegemony over the other. In instances such as these, the courts may have to resolve conflicts by establishing legal principles and precedents regarding which of these constitutional protections will be granted contextual prominence over the other. Thus far, the legal evaluation of this important question has been confused at best and contradictory at worst. This has resulted in a number of substantive outcomes that pose significant challenges to the practice and application of both rights and an underlying avoidance of broader constitutional questions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

16 pages, 237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Women’s Engagement with Humanist, Spiritual and Religious Meaning-Making in Prison: A Longitudinal Study of Its Impact on Recidivism

by Jeff Duncan, Richard Stansfield, Steve Hall and Tom O’Connor

Religions 2018, 9(6), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9060171 - 25 May 2018

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5678

Abstract

This study explores the long-term impact on recidivism of the engagement of over 300 women prisoners with humanist, spiritual and religious ways of making meaning during their incarceration. Prison chaplains and community volunteers in the Oregon Department of Corrections offered a diverse range [...] Read more.

This study explores the long-term impact on recidivism of the engagement of over 300 women prisoners with humanist, spiritual and religious ways of making meaning during their incarceration. Prison chaplains and community volunteers in the Oregon Department of Corrections offered a diverse range of humanist, spiritual and religious (HSR) events to the women, and 95% of them voluntarily engaged at varied levels with an average participation rate of about 3 h per month. The women who attended most often were motivated to do so by intrinsic or meaning-driven reasons and were more likely to have listened to a religious program on radio or TV in the six months before their incarceration. Controlling for ethnicity, risk of recidivism, participation in other programs (education, substance use, cognitive and work), length of time incarcerated, and infractions during incarceration we found an overall significantly positive impact of HSR involvement on recidivism during the first year after release and over a 13-year follow-up period post prison. The impact was concentrated among the 20% of women who attended most frequently (4 or more hours per month) indicating a dosage and consistency of practice effect. Prison chaplains and volunteers make a valuable contribution to the lives of women in prison and to the correctional system; the pro-social support/modeling and diverse help with meaning-making they offer in prison has a positive influence on the women’s journey of desistance in the community after prison. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

19 pages, 3436 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Manipulation of Social, Cultural and Religious Values in Socially Mediated Terrorism

by Claire Smith, Rosslyn Von der Borch, Benjamin Isakhan, Sukendar Sukendar, Priyambudi Sulistiyanto, Ian Ravenscrroft, Ida Widianingsih and Cherrie De Leiuen

Religions 2018, 9(5), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9050168 - 22 May 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 13969

Abstract

This paper presents an analysis of how the Islamic State/Da’esh and Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia manipulate conflicting social, cultural and religious values as part of their socially mediated terrorism. It focusses on three case studies: (1) the attacks in Paris, France on 13 November [...] Read more.

This paper presents an analysis of how the Islamic State/Da’esh and Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia manipulate conflicting social, cultural and religious values as part of their socially mediated terrorism. It focusses on three case studies: (1) the attacks in Paris, France on 13 November 2015; (2) the destruction of cultural heritage sites in Iraq and Syria; and (3) the struggle between nationalist values and extreme Islamic values in Indonesia. The case studies were chosen as a basis for identifying global commonalities as well as regional differences in socially mediated terrorism. They are located in Asia, the Middle East and Europe. The integrated analysis of these case studies identifies significant trends and suggests actions that could lessen the impact of strategies deployed by extremist groups such as Da’esh, al-Qaeda and Hizb ut-Tahrir. We discuss the broader implications for understanding various aspects of socially mediated terrorism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

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15 pages, 288 KiB

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Religious Identity and Perceptions of Criminal Justice Effectiveness

by Lee Michael Johnson, Todd L. Matthews and Elizabeth K. Ayers

Religions 2018, 9(5), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9050157 - 11 May 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5631

Abstract

Religiosity and attitudes regarding the criminal justice system have remained largely unstudied to date, despite the centrality of religion as an aspect of one’s identity formation. This study tests the hypothesis that perceptions of the effectiveness of police and the courts vary according [...] Read more.

Religiosity and attitudes regarding the criminal justice system have remained largely unstudied to date, despite the centrality of religion as an aspect of one’s identity formation. This study tests the hypothesis that perceptions of the effectiveness of police and the courts vary according to religious identity (affiliation, membership, and self-described religiosity or spirituality). A self-administered questionnaire was completed by 342 undergraduate students in introductory social science courses at a mid-sized university in the Southeastern US. Multiple Ordinary Least Squares regression analyses were performed on predictors of two outcome variables: perceived police effectiveness and perceived court effectiveness. Results offer partial support for a religious identity-based explanation of public perceptions of criminal justice system effectiveness. Membership of a local congregation, in general, was associated with higher ratings of police and court effectiveness. In addition, African Americans rated criminal justice effectiveness lower than non-African Americans. Once interactions between race and religious identity were incorporated, race itself became non-significant for both views on court and police effectiveness. However, these results showed that among African Americans, being a congregation member significantly reduced rather than increased ratings of police effectiveness. Religion thus continues to be complex and even paradoxical in shaping perceptions in the US. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

18 pages, 343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Religion on the Criminal Behavior of Emerging Adults

by Christopher Salvatore and Gabriel Rubin

Religions 2018, 9(5), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9050141 - 26 Apr 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 37128

Abstract

Recent generations of young adults are experiencing a new life course stage: emerging adulthood. During this ‘new’ stage of the life course, traditional social bonds and turning points may not be present, may be delayed, or may not operate in the same manner [...] Read more.

Recent generations of young adults are experiencing a new life course stage: emerging adulthood. During this ‘new’ stage of the life course, traditional social bonds and turning points may not be present, may be delayed, or may not operate in the same manner as they have for prior generations. One such bond, religion, is examined here. Focusing on the United States, emerging adulthood is investigated as a distinct stage of the life course. The criminality of emerging adults is presented, a theoretical examination of the relationship between religion and crime is provided, the role of religion in emerging adults’ lives is explored, research on the role of religion’s influence on criminal offending is presented, and theoretical and policy implications are offered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

17 pages, 303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Faith-Based Intervention: Prison, Prayer, and Perseverance

by Shona Robinson-Edwards and Stephanie Kewley

Religions 2018, 9(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9040130 - 16 Apr 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 10433

Abstract

This qualitative article explores the impact of faith-based interventions through the lens of a self-identified practicing Christian: Joanna. For over a decade, Joanna has visited several prisons in the United Kingdom in a faith-based capacity: supporting prisoners, families, and prison chaplaincies. Joanna professes [...] Read more.

This qualitative article explores the impact of faith-based interventions through the lens of a self-identified practicing Christian: Joanna. For over a decade, Joanna has visited several prisons in the United Kingdom in a faith-based capacity: supporting prisoners, families, and prison chaplaincies. Joanna professes the role of faith and religiosity to be a positive and influential component in the lives of those imprisoned. This paper explores Joanna’s journey of supporting individuals within the prison walls, reflecting on the impact of labels, imprisonment, faith-based intervention, and religiosity. Much of the current research pertaining to faith-based interventions are limited; therefore, the experiences of those who volunteer within prisons in a faith-based capacity is often overlooked. Yet, faith-based intervention and religiosity within a criminal justice context provides several benefits which impact on those in prison, their families, and people working within a prison environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

16 pages, 294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Religious Contexts and Violence in Emerging and Traditional Immigrant Destinations

by Casey T. Harris, Ben Feldmeyer and Raymond Barranco

Religions 2018, 9(4), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9040116 - 8 Apr 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3852

Abstract

Amidst both a resurgent interest in the impact of religion on social problems like crime, including its contextual effects, as well as scholarship directed toward the immigration-crime intersection, the current study examines how different religious traditions impact known violent offending uniquely in traditional [...] Read more.

Amidst both a resurgent interest in the impact of religion on social problems like crime, including its contextual effects, as well as scholarship directed toward the immigration-crime intersection, the current study examines how different religious traditions impact known violent offending uniquely in traditional versus emerging immigrant destinations. To do so, we employ negative binomial models regressing homicides, robberies, and aggravated assaults on adherence to three major religious traditions (mainline Protestant, evangelical Protestant, and Catholic), as well as immigration and other key macro-structural controls. We disaggregate our analysis for three types of United States counties in 2010: emerging, traditional, and other immigrant destinations. We find that religious traditions vary in their relationship with known violence across destination types: Catholic adherence is protective against crime (net of controls) only in established immigrant destinations, but evangelical Protestant adherence is associated with higher levels of robbery and aggravated assault in the same locales. Religious adherence has no links to violence in emerging immigrant destinations. Broadly, our findings reveal that the religious context is an important part of the evolving story of immigration, though it is multifaceted and context-dependent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

17 pages, 283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

‘Better as a Buddhist’: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of the Reflections on the Religious Beliefs of Buddhist Men Serving a Prison Sentence for a Sexual Offence

by Katie Bell, Belinda Winder and Nicholas Blagden

Religions 2018, 9(4), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9040101 - 29 Mar 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5893

Abstract

This paper presents a qualitative analysis of the accounts offered by individuals (n = 7) convicted of a sexual offense who describe themselves as Buddhists. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews within a custodial environment and analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). [...] Read more.

This paper presents a qualitative analysis of the accounts offered by individuals (n = 7) convicted of a sexual offense who describe themselves as Buddhists. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews within a custodial environment and analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). This paper presents the two superordinate themes that emerged from the data: (i) Better as a Buddhist and (ii) Ebb and Flow. Reflections and analysis from the Buddhist prison chaplain are integrated within the analysis of prisoner-participant data. Implications of the analysis are discussed with reference to interventions that use Buddhist principles, factors that underpin factors that help reduce reoffending and those that fit with the formation of a desistance narrative for religious individuals who have committed sexual offenses Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

13 pages, 219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Child Sexual Abuse in Protestant Christian Congregations: A Descriptive Analysis of Offense and Offender Characteristics

by Andrew S. Denney, Kent R. Kerley and Nickolas G. Gross

Religions 2018, 9(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9010027 - 18 Jan 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 27881

Abstract

Utilizing data from 326 cases of alleged child sexual abuse that occurred at or through activities provided by Protestant Christian congregations, this study examines demographic and contextual characteristics of alleged child sexual abuse that took place within the most prevalent religious environment in [...] Read more.

Utilizing data from 326 cases of alleged child sexual abuse that occurred at or through activities provided by Protestant Christian congregations, this study examines demographic and contextual characteristics of alleged child sexual abuse that took place within the most prevalent religious environment in the United States. Research questions are addressed in this study. First, what type of child sexual abuse most commonly occurs at or through activities provided by Protestant Christian congregations? Second, where do such offenses physically take place? Third, who are the offenders and what role(s) do they assume in the congregations? We find that the overwhelming majority of offenses were contact offenses that occurred on church premises or at the offender’s home, and that most offenders were white male pastors or youth ministers who were approximately 40 years in age. We conclude with policy implications and recommendations for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Crime: Theory, Research, and Practice)

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