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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 May 2026 | Viewed by 12871

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Prof. Dr. Dana Luca Motoc

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Department of Automotive and Transport Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Transilvania University of Brașov, 500036 Brașov, Romania
Interests: polymer composites; coatings; composite micromechanics; mechanical/thermal/dynamic-mechanical/electrical/optical properties
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Dr. Santiago Ferrándiz-Bou

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Instituto Universitario de Investigación de Tecnología de los Materiales (IUITM), Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV), 03801 Alcoy, Spain
Interests: additive printing; injection; polymer and polymer composites; material charactrization; FEM simulation
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

You are invited to submit to this Special Issue of Polymers. We are looking for research papers, reviews or short communications covering topics on the additive manufacturing of (bio)polymers and composites thereof. Topics of particular interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

The synthesis and development of novel (bio)polymer formulations suitable for a wide range of additive processes, such as fused deposition modeling (FDM), selective laser sintering (SLS), direct light processing (DLP), laminated object manufacturing (LOM), etc.;
Additively tailored synthetic/natural filler-reinforced composites;
(Bio)polymer and/or composite characterization and performance (e.g., mechanical, thermal, dynamic-mechanical, electrical, chemical, biological, optical, etc.);
The relationship between process–structure–material properties;
The optimization of process parameters;
The modeling and simulation of processes and materials;
Application-driven solutions (e.g., energy storage/harvesting, biomedical, engineering, robotics, optoelectronics, sensors, etc.).

Prof. Dr. Dana Luca Motoc
Dr. Santiago Ferrándiz-Bou
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

additive manufacturing
(bio)polymers
(bio)polymer-based composites
material characterization
modeling and simulation
applications

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Related Special Issue

Additive Manufacturing of (Bio) Polymeric Materials in Polymers (11 articles)

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Research

16 pages, 1662 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shear Bond Strength of Additively and Subtractively Manufactured CAD/CAM Restorative Materials After Different Surface Treatments and Adhesive Strategies: An In Vitro Study

by Sevim Atilan Yavuz, Ayse Tugba Erturk-Avunduk, Omer Sagsoz, Ebru Delikan and Ozcan Karatas

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020296 (registering DOI) - 22 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate the effects of different surface treatments and adhesive systems on the shear bond strength (SBS) of additively manufactured (AM) and subtractively manufactured (SM) restorative materials. A total 675 rectangular specimens of three AM (Saremco Crowntec/SC, VarseoSmile CrownPlus/VC, and VarseoSmile TriniQ/VT) and two SM (Vita Enamic/VE and Cerasmart/CS) restorative materials were fabricated. Each material was randomly divided into three groups regarding surface treatments: control/C, sandblasting/S, and etching/E. Following surface treatments, each AM and SM restorative material was then divided into three subgroups (15 specimens/subgroup) on the basis of adhesive systems (etch-and-rinse, self-etch, and universal). All specimens were thermocycled at 10,000 cycles, 5–55 °C, 30 s dwell time, and tested under SBS until failure, and failure types were examined under a stereomicroscope. Representative specimens were examined by SEM to evaluate fracture morphology. Statistical analysis was set at p < 0.05. There were significant differences in bond strength according to the material, surface treatment, adhesives, and their interactions (p < 0.05). The highest SBS value was obtained with SC × sandblasting × etch-and-rinse (16.45 ± 0.93 MPa), while the lowest value was found in the CS × control × universal interaction (4.68 ± 1.1 MPa). Outcomes varied according to the materials, surface treatment, and adhesive strategy. Clinically, these findings indicate that SM materials may require various surface treatment to achieve reliable adhesion, whereas AM materials provide more similar bond strength performance with no surface treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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24 pages, 3135 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on Mechanical Properties of Functional Graded Hybrid TPMS Structures Inspired Bone Scaffolds

by İsmail Aykut Karamanli

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020236 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 218

Abstract

Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) structures, with their zero average curvature, excellent energy absorption properties, high specific strength and high surface-to-volume ratio, could be used in a wide range of applications, such as the creation of lightweight and durable structures, grafts and implants. In this study, an internal TPMS structure inspiring trabecular bone and an external TPMS structure inspiring cortical bone were combined with infill density and topologically functionally graded to obtain hybrid structures. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of functional grading on mechanical properties, energy absorption capacity and surface/volume (S/V) ratio and to determine the best combination. The novelty of the study is to obtain hybrid structures close to bone structures with a functional grading approach. The experimental design of the study was performed using the Design of Experiment (DoE) approach and the Taguchi method. Specimens were created according to the established experimental design and fabricated using a Masked Stereolithography (mSLA)-type 3D printer with bio-resin. The fabricated structures were subjected to compression tests; the results were examined in terms of deformation behavior, first peak, maximum force, energy absorption, specific energy absorption and S/V ratio. The optimal structures for defined input parameters were determined using signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios and ANOVA results. Deformations for diamond and primitive specimens began as shear band formation. Deformations for Neovius structures were mostly as brittle fracture. The highest first peak of 18.96 kN was obtained with the DN specimens, while the highest maximum force of 23.77 kN was obtained with the ND specimens. The best energy absorption property was also obtained with ND. The highest S/V ratio was 5.65 in the GP specimens. The statistical analyses were in accordance with the experimental results. Infill density increases decreased the S/V ratio while increasing all other parameters. This demonstrated the importance of mechanical-strength/porosity optimization for bone scaffold surrogate applications in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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22 pages, 4100 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transition Behavior in Blended Material Large Format Additive Manufacturing

by James Brackett, Elijah Charles, Matthew Charles, Ethan Strickland, Nina Bhat, Tyler Smith, Vlastimil Kunc and Chad Duty

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020178 - 8 Jan 2026

Viewed by 223

Abstract

Large-Format Additive Manufacturing (LFAM) offers the ability to 3D print composites at multi-meter scale and high throughput by utilizing a screw-based extrusion system that is compatible with pelletized feedstock. As such, LFAM systems like the Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM) system provide a pathway for incorporating AM techniques into industry-scale production. Despite significant growth in LFAM techniques and usage in recent years, typical Multi-Material (MM) techniques induce weak points at discrete material boundaries and encounter a higher frequency of delamination failures. A novel dual-hopper configuration was developed for the BAAM platform to enable in situ switching between material feedstocks that creates a graded transition region in the printed part. This research studied the influence of extrusion screw speed, component design, transition direction, and material viscosity on the transition behavior. Material transitions were monitored using compositional analysis as a function of extruded volume and modeled using a standard Weibull cumulative distribution function (CDF). Screw speed had a negligible influence on transition behavior, but averaging the Weibull CDF parameters of transitions printed using the same configurations demonstrated that designs intended to improve mixing increased the size of the blended material region. Further investigation showed that the relative difference and change in complex viscosity influenced the size of the blended region. These results indicate that tunable properties and material transitions can be achieved through selection and modification of composite feedstocks and their complex viscosities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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17 pages, 6328 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Bead Geometry and Layer Time on Microstructure and Thermomechanical Properties of Large-Format Polymer Composites

by Tyler M. Corum, Johnna C. O’Connell, Samuel Pankratz, Maximilian Heres, Jeff Foote and Chad E. Duty

Polymers 2026, 18(1), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010133 - 1 Jan 2026

Viewed by 467

Abstract

Large-format additive manufacturing (LFAM) is a manufacturing process in which high volumes of material are extruded in a layer-by-layer fashion to create large structures with often complex geometries. The Loci-One system, operated and developed by Loci Robotics Inc., is an LFAM-type system that was used to print single-bead walls of 20% by weight carbon fiber reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (CF-ABS) using various print parameter inputs. This study observed the influence of bead width and layer time on thermomechanical performance via material characterization techniques that accounted for the complex microstructure of LFAM parts to develop a better understanding of parameter–structure–property relationships. Printed parts were characterized by measuring the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and interlayer strength. Near the edges of the printed beads, microscopy revealed a “thinning effect” experienced by a shell composed primarily of highly oriented fiber as the bead width was increased; however, this effect was diminished with a higher shear rate. The CTE results demonstrated the influence of mesostructure on the thermomechanical response. Increased shear rates were expected to lower CTE in the x-direction due to a higher ratio of fiber oriented in the print direction, but this relationship was not always observed. For the larger bead widths printed at higher shear rates, the randomly oriented fiber at the core dominated the thermomechanical response and increased CTE overall in the x-direction. A heat transfer model was developed for this work to determine how much time was required for the deposited bead to cool to the glass transition temperature. Interlayer strength results revealed a rapid decrease once the printed layer time exceeded the time required for the extrudate to cool below the glass transition temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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25 pages, 5546 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of a Single Joint Between Two FDM-Printed PLA Filaments

by Jaime Orellana-Barrasa, Emilio Antón Carrasco-Otermín and José Ygnacio Pastor

Polymers 2025, 17(23), 3106; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17233106 - 22 Nov 2025

Viewed by 2453

Abstract

Isolating the mechanical properties of an FDM joint by performing a direct tensile test on it is something that has yet to be achieved. Developing a methodology for isolating the properties of a single joint could help to inform simulations and achieve a better understanding of the mechanisms affecting the bond strength between FDM-printed materials. In this work, a cruciform single-joint test (CSJT) of a cross-shaped specimen and a fast mechanical clamping protocol are introduced to evaluate the apparent tensile strength and fracture mechanisms of a single FDM-printed joint between two PLA filaments. First, a discussion of different approaches for obtaining a fast, reproducible, and reliable test of the samples is presented. Then, nozzle temperature (180–215 °C) and bed temperature (30–120 °C) were systematically varied, producing a minimum of n = 12 samples per condition. Samples were classified after failure, depending on the fracture mechanism (type 1 = joint failure; type 2 = filament failure), and the apparent tensile strength (ATS) of the joint was computed from the tensile tests and optical micrographs. The detachment probability of the joints decreased sharply above 210 °C, while the ATS increased, approaching a plateau near ~50 MPa. The influence of bed temperature was smoother, with a stable decrease in the detachment ratio as the ATS increased, indicating that nozzle temperature is the main factor contributing to the joint strength. These results map a temperature-driven transition from joint-controlled to filament-controlled failure. The method proposed also provides a minimal-material, high-throughput route to quantify FDM interlayer bonding and inform process simulations. Additional tests are performed to contextualize the results presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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15 pages, 1897 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enabling Industrial Re-Use of Large-Format Additive Manufacturing Molding and Tooling

by Matthew Korey, Amber M. Hubbard, Gregory Haye, Robert Bedsole, Zachary Skelton, Neeki Meshkat, Ashish L. S. Anilal, Kathryn Slavny, Katie Copenhaver, Tyler Corum, Don X. Bones, William M. Gramlich, Chad Duty and Soydan Ozcan

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 2981; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17222981 - 10 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1124

Abstract

Large-format additive manufacturing (LFAM) is an enabling manufacturing technology capable of producing large parts with highly complex geometries for a wide variety of applications, including automotive, infrastructure/construction, and aerospace mold and tooling. In the past decade, the LFAM industry has seen widespread use of bio-based, glass, and/or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites which, when printed, serve as a lower-cost alternative to metallic parts. One of the highest-volume materials utilized by the industry is carbon fiber (CF)-filled polycarbonate (PC), which in out-of-autoclave applications can achieve comparable mechanical performance to metal at a significantly lower cost. Previous work has shown that if this material is recovered at various points throughout the manufacturing process for both the lab and pilot scale, it can be mechanically recycled with minimal impacts on the functional performance and printability of the material while significantly reducing the feedstock costs. End-of-life (EOL) CF-PC components were processed through industrial shredding, melt compounding, and LFAM equipment, followed by evaluation of the second-life material properties. Experimental assessments included quantitative analysis of fiber length attrition, polymer molecular weight degradation using gel permeation chromatography (GPC), density changes via pycnometry, thermal performance using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), and mechanical performance (tensile properties) in both the X- and Z-directions. Results demonstrated a 24.6% reduction in average fiber length compared to virgin prints, accompanied by a 21% decrease in X-direction tensile strength and a 39% reduction in tensile modulus. Despite these reductions, Z-direction tensile modulus improved by 4%, density increased by 6.8%, and heat deflection temperature (HDT) under high stress retained over 97% of its original value. These findings underscore the potential for integrating mechanically recycled CF-PC into industrial LFAM applications while highlighting the need for technological innovations to mitigate fiber degradation and enhance material performance for broader adoption. This critical step toward circular material practices in LFAM offers a pathway to reducing feedstock costs and environmental impact while maintaining functional performance in industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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17 pages, 2457 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cellular Structures Analysis Under Compression Test

by Maria C. Bedoya, J. William Restrepo, Luis V. Wilches and Johnnatan Rodriguez

Polymers 2025, 17(11), 1476; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111476 - 26 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1396

Abstract

Cellular structures, formed by periodic two- or three-dimensional cells, offer weight reduction without compromising mechanical performance and are commonly fabricated via additive manufacturing. This study investigates the compressive behaviour of three polymer lattice structures—gyroid, diamond, and octet truss—fabricated by fused filament fabrication (FFF). A Box–Behnken experimental design was used to systematically evaluate the influence of three key parameters: cell size, strut/wall thickness, and layer thickness. A total of 225 samples were produced using PLA and subjected to compression testing in accordance with ASTM D1621. Linear regression and response surface methodology were employed to determine the statistical significance and impact of each factor. The results indicate that cell size has the strongest influence on both maximum force and displacement, followed by strut/wall thickness and layer thickness. Among the configurations, gyroid structures had the highest strength-to-density ratio, while diamond structures had the highest deformation capacity. These findings provide design insights for optimising lattice structures in lightweight applications and highlight the importance of carefully balancing geometric and printing parameters in FFF-based polymer components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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23 pages, 4432 KB

Open AccessArticle

Utilization of Ground Eggshell as a Biofiller of Plasticized PVC-Based Materials Fabricated Using Melt Blending

by Katarzyna Skórczewska, Krzysztof Lewandowski, Sławomir Wilczewski, Joanna Szulc and Paulina Rakowska

Polymers 2025, 17(4), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17040434 - 7 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3669

Abstract

The paper examines the use of waste eggshells as a valuable biofiller for modifying plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). The raw ES was characterized using TGA, FTIR, particle size analysis, and XRD. The effects of ES on the processing, mechanical and thermal properties, density, porosity, and colour of PVC matrix composites were evaluated compared to pPVC/CC produced using the same methodology. It was found that pPVC/ES exhibits different processing properties to pPVC/CC. The mechanical properties of PVC/ES are slightly lower than those of pPVC/CC at concentrations up to 20 phr. However, at 30 phr and 40 phr, the differences in the mechanical properties of composites with both CC and ES are very similar, and the values are within the designated standard deviation of the measurement. The mechanical properties of PVC/ES do not limit their potential applications. When using eggshell (ES) as a filler, improvements in tensile strength (t_ts) were observed, ranging from 38% to 61% compared to the unfilled matrix and from 35% to 54% compared to pPVC/CC with an equivalent amount of filler. Although ground eggshells have similar insulating properties to calcium carbonate (CC), they are more effective at scavenging chlorine (Cl•) released during the initial stages of decomposition. This effectiveness helps to slow down the breakdown of PVC, as the eggshells maintain their porous, sponge-like structure when used as a filler. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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15 pages, 5423 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction Model for Flake Line Defects in Metallic Injection Molding: Considering Skin-Core Velocity and Alignment

by Seungkwon Choi, Donghwi Park, Seungcheol Lee, Minho Song and Naksoo Kim

Polymers 2025, 17(2), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17020245 - 20 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1320

Abstract

Metallic injection molding combines aluminum flake metallic pigments with polymers to directly produce components with metallic luster, improving production efficiency and reducing environmental impact. However, flake line defects that occur in regions where ribs or flow paths intersect remain a significant challenge. This study proposes a velocity model that considers the flow characteristics between the surface and core layers and an alignment model that incorporates the orientation of aluminum flakes to predict appearance defects. Through this approach, the mechanisms of appearance defect formation were systematized, and the appearance defects caused by flow velocity differences between the surface and core layers, flake alignment uniformity, and reflection angles were visualized. Both prediction models demonstrated a 50% prediction accuracy, successfully identifying two out of four observed defects. This research addresses the limitations of previous prediction methods, which only considered the surface layer, by introducing a novel approach that accounts for the core layer. It is expected to contribute to reducing defects and improving quality in industries requiring high-quality metallic appearances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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14 pages, 8037 KB

Open AccessArticle

Highlighting Free-Recovery and Work-Generating Shape Memory Effects at 80r-PET Thermoformed Cups

by Ștefan-Dumitru Sava, Bogdan Pricop, Mihai Popa, Nicoleta-Monica Lohan, Elena Matcovschi, Nicanor Cimpoeșu, Radu-Ioachim Comăneci and Leandru-Gheorghe Bujoreanu

Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3598; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243598 - 23 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1255

Abstract

The paper starts by describing the manufacturing process of cups thermoformed from extruded foils of 80% recycled PET (80r-PET), which comprises heating, hot deep drawing and cooling. The 80r-PET foils were heated up to 120 °C, at heating rates of the order of hundreds °C/min, and deep drawn with multiple punchers, having a depth-to-width ratio exceeding 1:1. After puncher-assisted deformation, the cups were air blown away from the punchers, thus being “frozen” in the deformed state. Due to the high cooling rate, most of the polymer’s structure reached a rigid, glassy state, the internal stresses that tended to recover the flat undeformed state were blocked and the polymer remained in a temporary cup form. When heating was applied, glass transition occurred, and the polymer reached a rubbery state and softened. This softening process released the blocked internal stresses and the polymer tended to recover its flat permanent shape. This relative volume contraction quantitatively describes the shape memory effect (SME) which can be obtained either with free recovery (FR-SME) or with work generation (WG-SME) when the cups lifted their bottoms with different loads placed inside them. The paper discusses the results obtained by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), room-temperature tensile failure tests (TENS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The DSC charts emphasized a glass transition, responsible for SME occurrence. The DMA thermograms and the TENS curves revealed that there are slight differences between the storage modulus and the tensile strains of the specimens cut on longitudinal, transversal, or 45° to the film rolling direction. The SEM micrographs enabled to observe structural differences between the specimens cut parallelly and transversally to the film’s rolling direction. The thermoformed cups were heated on a special experimental setup, which enabled the determination of FR-SME and WG-SME after applying different maximum temperatures and loads placed into the cups, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)

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