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Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk

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A special issue of Pharmaceutics (ISSN 1999-4923). This special issue belongs to the section "Biopharmaceutics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2024) | Viewed by 20262

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Anna Weronika Sobańska

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Guest Editor

Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lodz, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151 Lodz, Poland
Interests: pharmacology; environmental toxicology; liquid chromatography; drug-protein interactions; in silico studies; biological activity of plants; analysis of pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Heidi Kidron

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Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
Interests: transporters; permeability; blood-brain barrier; pharmacokinetics

Dr. Franciska Erdő

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Information Technology and Bionics, Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Práter u. 50A, H-1083 Budapest, Hungary
Interests: drug-delivery; nose-to-brain delivery; transporters; dermal barrier; blood-brain barrier; lab-on-a-chip technology; Franz diffusion cells
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Drug transport across biological barriers in humans and animals plays a key role in drug delivery to a biological target. Insufficient drug transport is a serious obstacle to a drug’s intended activity. In some cases, however, undesired compounds are absorbed through biological barriers (e.g., the skin, placenta or blood–brain barrier), posing a danger to humans and animals alike.

This Special Issue primarily focuses on (but it is not limited to) the following:

In vivo, in vitro or in silico studies of drug transport through biological membranes;
Compound absorption from the gastro-intestinal tract, through skin or mucous membranes;
Pulmonary or ophthalmic absorption;
Transport of unwanted chemicals through the placenta or to mothers' milk;
Blood–brain barrier transport of xenobiotics;
Human and animal absorption of environmental contaminants via different routes;
Studies of compounds’ drug-likeness;
QSAR permeability studies;
Alternative drug delivery routes—novel methods or formulations.

Dr. Anna Sobańska
Dr. Heidi Kidron
Dr. Franciska Erdő
Guest Editors

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Keywords

ADMET studies
blood–brain barrier
gastro-intestinal absorption
placenta permeability
drug-likeness
skin/dermal absorption
drug delivery routes
compound transport across biological membranes
absorption of environmental contaminants
QSAR permeability studies

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 153 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Transport of Drugs Through Biological Barriers—An Asset or Risk

by Anna Weronika Sobańska

Pharmaceutics 2025, 17(4), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17040465 - 3 Apr 2025

Viewed by 213

Abstract

Biological barriers are both cellular and enzymatic interfaces between different compartments of a living organism [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

15 pages, 1256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pesticides’ Cornea Permeability—How Serious Is This Problem?

by Anna W. Sobańska, Andrzej M. Sobański and Karolina Wanat

Pharmaceutics 2025, 17(2), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17020156 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 602

Abstract

Background: A total of 348 pesticides from different chemical families (carbamates, organochlorines organophosphorus compounds, pyrethroids, triazines and miscellaneous) were investigated in the context of their cornea permeability and potential to cause eye corrosion. Methods: Multivariate models of cornea permeability based on compounds whose cornea permeability has been determined experimentally were proposed. The models, applicable to compounds across a relatively broad lipophilicity range (e.g., pesticides with octanol–water partition coefficient log P up to ca. 8), assume a reverse-parabolic relationship between cornea permeability and lipophilicity, expressed as XLOGP3; other main descriptors present in the models are log D at pH 7.4 and polar surface area (PSA). Results: It appears that the trans-corneal transport of all studied pesticides is possible to some degree; however, it is more difficult for the majority of highly lipophilic pesticides from the organochlorine and pyrethroid families. The same set of 348 pesticides was also evaluated for their eye-corrosive potential using novel artificial neural network models involving simple physico-chemical properties of the compounds (lipophilicity, aqueous solubility, polar surface area, H-bond donor and acceptor count and the count of atoms such as N, NH, O, P, S and halogens). Conclusions: It was concluded that eye corrosion is an issue, especially among the pesticides from organochlorine and organophosphorus families. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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13 pages, 1449 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Log BB Prediction Models Using TLC and HPLC Retention Values as Protein Affinity Data

by Karolina Wanat, Klaudia Michalak and Elżbieta Brzezińska

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(12), 1534; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16121534 - 30 Nov 2024

Viewed by 936

Abstract

Background: The penetration of drugs through the blood–brain barrier is one of the key pharmacokinetic aspects of centrally acting active substances and other drugs in terms of the occurrence of side effects on the central nervous system. In our research, several regression models were constructed in order to observe the connections between the active pharmaceutical ingredients’ properties and their bioavailability in the CNS, presented in the form of the log BB parameter, which refers to the drug concentration on both sides of the blood–brain barrier. Methods: Predictive models were created using the physicochemical properties of drugs, and multiple linear regression and a data mining method, i.e., MARSplines, were used to build them. Retention values from protein-affinity chromatography (TLC and HPLC) were introduced into the analyses. In both experiments, the stationary phases were modified with serum albumin, which enriched the obtained chromatographic data, and were then introduced into the models with good results. Results: The conducted analyses confirm that the variables that influence the log BB include high degree of lipophilicity, ionisation capacity and low capability of forming hydrogen bonds. However, the addition of chromatographic data improved the obtained regression results and increased the robustness of the models against an increased number of cases. The linear regression model with chromatographic parameters explains 85% of the log bb variability, whereas the MARSplines model explains 91%. Conclusions: Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that the use of chromatographic data can increase the robustness of predictive regression models related to penetration through biological barriers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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15 pages, 3327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Palmitoylethanolamide-Incorporated Elastic Nano-Liposomes for Enhanced Transdermal Delivery and Anti-Inflammation

by Chuanpeng Ren, Yanyun Ma, Yizhen Wang, Dan Luo, Yanhan Hong, Xinyuan Zhang, Hexiang Mei and Wei Liu

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(7), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16070876 - 29 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2122

Abstract

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) exhibits multiple skincare functions such as anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. However, its topical application is limited due to its difficulty in bypassing the stratum corneum barrier, relatively low bioavailability, and low stability. Herein, elastic nano-liposomes (ENLs) with excellent deformability and elasticity were utilized as a novel drug delivery system to encapsulate PEA to overcome the abovementioned issues and enhance the biological effects on the skin. ENL was prepared with phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, and cetyl-PG hydroxyethyl palmitamide with a molar ratio mimicking skin epidermal lipids, and PEA was loaded. The PEA-loaded ENL (PEA-ENL) demonstrated efficient transdermal delivery and enhanced skin retention, with negligible cytotoxicity toward HaCaT cells and no allergic reaction in the human skin patch test. Notably, PEA-ENL treatment increased cell migration and induced significant regulation in the expression of genes associated with anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and skin barrier repair. The mechanism of the anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of PEA was further investigated and explained by molecular docking site analysis. This novel PEA-ENL, with efficient transdermal delivery efficiency and multiple skincare functionalities, is promising for topical application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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15 pages, 1621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) as Delivery Vehicles of a Chimeric Protein Carrying Epitopes from the Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus

by María José Alonso-Cerda, Mariano J. García-Soto, Arleth Miranda-López, René Segura-Velázquez, José Ivan Sánchez-Betancourt, Omar González-Ortega and Sergio Rosales-Mendoza

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(7), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16070841 - 21 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1653

Abstract

The Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus (PRRSV) causes reproductive failure and respiratory symptoms, leading to huge economic losses for the pig farming industry. Although several vaccines against PRRSV are available in the market; they show an overall low efficacy, and several countries have the need for vaccines covering the local, circulating variants. This project aims at developing a new chimeric antigen targeting specific epitopes from PRRSV and evaluating two test adjuvants to formulate a vaccine candidate. The test antigen was called LTB–PRRSV, which was produced recombinantly in Escherichia coli and consisted of the heat labile enterotoxin B subunit from E. coli (LTB) and four epitopes from PRRSV. LTB–PRRSV was rescued as inclusion bodies and methods for its solubilization, IMAC-based purification, and refolding were standardized, leading to mean yields of 18 mg of pure protein per liter culture. Layered double hydroxides (LDH) have been used as vaccine adjuvants given their biocompatibility, low cost, and positive surface charge that allows an efficient adsorption of negatively charged biomolecules. Therefore, LDH were selected as delivery vehicles of LTB–PRRSV. Pure LTB–PRRSV was adsorbed onto LDH by incubation at different LDH:LTB–PRRSV mass ratios (1:0.25, 1:0.5, 1:1, and 1:2) and at pH 9.5. The best adsorption occurred with a 1:2 mass ratio, and in a sucrose-tween solution. The conjugates obtained had a polydispersity index of 0.26, a hydrodynamic diameter of 192 nm, and a final antigen concentration of 64.2 μg/mL. An immunogenicity assessment was performed by injecting mice with LDH:LTB–PRRSV, Alum/LTB–PRRSV, or LTB–PRRSV in a scheme comprising three immunizations at two-week intervals and two dose levels (1 and 5 μg). LTB–PRRSV was capable of inducing strong humoral responses, which lasted for a longer period when LDH was used as the delivery vehicle/adjuvant. The potential of LDH to serve as an attractive carrier for veterinary vaccines is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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12 pages, 1025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ABCG2 Transports the Flukicide Nitroxynil and Affects Its Biodistribution and Secretion into Milk

by Laura Álvarez-Fernández, Esther Blanco-Paniagua and Gracia Merino

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(4), 558; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16040558 - 19 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1412

Abstract

The ABCG2 transporter plays a key role in pharmacological and toxicological processes, affecting bioavailability, tissue accumulation and milk secretion of its substrates. This protein is expressed in several biological barriers acting as a protective mechanism against xenobiotic exposure by pumping out a broad range of compounds. However, its induced expression during lactation in alveolar cells of mammary gland represents a relevant route for active transport of unwanted chemicals into milk. This work aimed to characterize the involvement of ABCG2 in systemic exposure and milk secretion of the flukicide nitroxynil. Using MDCK–II cells overexpressing the transporter, we showed that nitroxynil is an in vitro substrate of different species variants of ABCG2. Moreover, using wild-type and Abcg2^−/− mice, we showed that murine Abcg2 clearly affects plasma levels of nitroxynil. We also reported differences in nitroxynil accumulation in several tissues, with almost 2-fold higher concentration in kidney, small intestine and testis of Abcg2^−/− mice. Finally, we proved that nitroxynil secretion into milk was also affected by Abcg2, with a 1.9-fold higher milk concentration in wild-type compared with Abcg2^−/− mice. We conclude that ABCG2 significantly impacts nitroxynil biodistribution by regulating its passage across biological barriers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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19 pages, 1407 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transport of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs across an Oral Mucosa Epithelium In Vitro Model

by Grace C. Lin, Heinz-Peter Friedl, Sarah Grabner, Anna Gerhartl and Winfried Neuhaus

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(4), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16040543 - 15 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1962

Abstract

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are one of the most prescribed drugs to treat pain or fever. However, oral administration of NSAIDs is frequently associated with adverse effects due to their inhibitory effect on the constitutively expressed cyclooxygenase enzyme 1 (COX-1) in, for instance, the gastrointestinal tract. A systemic delivery, such as a buccal delivery, of NSAIDs would be beneficial and additionally has the advantage of a non-invasive administration route, especially favourable for children or the elderly. To investigate the transport of NSAIDs across the buccal mucosa and determine their potential for buccal therapeutic usage, celecoxib, diclofenac, ibuprofen and piroxicam were tested using an established oral mucosa Transwell^® model based on human cell line TR146. Carboxyfluorescein and diazepam were applied as internal paracellular and transcellular marker molecule, respectively. Calculated permeability coefficients revealed a transport ranking of ibuprofen > piroxicam > diclofenac > celecoxib. Transporter protein inhibitor verapamil increased the permeability for ibuprofen, piroxicam and celecoxib, whereas probenecid increased the permeability for all tested NSAIDs. Furthermore, influence of local inflammation of the buccal mucosa on the transport of NSAIDs was mimicked by treating cells with a cytokine mixture of TNF-α, IL-1ß and IFN-γ followed by transport studies with ibuprofen (+ probenecid). Cellular response to pro-inflammatory stimuli was confirmed by upregulation of cytokine targets at the mRNA level, increased secreted cytokine levels and a significant decrease in the paracellular barrier. Permeability of ibuprofen was increased across cell layers treated with cytokines, while addition of probenecid increased permeability of ibuprofen in controls, but not across cell layers treated with cytokines. In summary, the suitability of the in vitro oral mucosa model to measure NSAID transport rankings was demonstrated, and the involvement of transporter proteins was confirmed; an inflammation model was established, and increased NSAID transport upon inflammation was measured. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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15 pages, 5905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved In Vitro Blood-Brain Barrier Model for the Evaluation of Drug Permeability Using Transwell with Shear Stress

by Junhyeong Kim, Seong-Ah Shin, Chang Sup Lee and Hye Jin Chung

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16010048 - 28 Dec 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3943

Abstract

The development of drugs targeting the central nervous system (CNS) is challenging because of the presence of the Blood-Brain barrier (BBB). Developing physiologically relevant in vitro BBB models for evaluating drug permeability and predicting the activity of drug candidates is crucial. The transwell model is one of the most widely used in vitro BBB models. However, this model has limitations in mimicking in vivo conditions, particularly in the absence of shear stress. This study aimed to overcome the limitations of the transwell model using immortalized human endothelial cells (hCMEC/D3) by developing a novel dish design for an orbital shaker, providing shear stress. During optimization, we assessed cell layer integrity using trans-endothelial electrical resistance measurements and the % diffusion of lucifer yellow. The efflux transporter activity and mRNA expression of junctional proteins (claudin-5, occludin, and VE-cadherin) in the newly optimized model were verified. Additionally, the permeability of 14 compounds was evaluated and compared with published in vivo data. The cell-layer integrity was substantially increased using the newly designed annular shaking-dish model. The results demonstrate that our model provided robust conditions for evaluating the permeability of CNS drug candidates, potentially improving the reliability of in vitro BBB models in drug development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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Review

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32 pages, 3329 KiB

Open AccessReview

Biological Barriers for Drug Delivery and Development of Innovative Therapeutic Approaches in HIV, Pancreatic Cancer, and Hemophilia A/B

by Emre Basar, Henry Mead, Bennett Shum, Ingrid Rauter, Cihan Ay, Adriane Skaletz-Rorowski and Norbert H. Brockmeyer

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(9), 1207; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16091207 - 13 Sep 2024

Viewed by 3413

Abstract

Biological barriers remain a major obstacle for the development of innovative therapeutics. Depending on a disease’s pathophysiology, the involved tissues, cell populations, and cellular components, drugs often have to overcome several biological barriers to reach their target cells and become effective in a specific cellular compartment. Human biological barriers are incredibly diverse and include multiple layers of protection and obstruction. Importantly, biological barriers are not only found at the organ/tissue level, but also include cellular structures such as the outer plasma membrane, the endolysosomal machinery, and the nuclear envelope. Nowadays, clinicians have access to a broad arsenal of therapeutics ranging from chemically synthesized small molecules, biologicals including recombinant proteins (such as monoclonal antibodies and hormones), nucleic-acid-based therapeutics, and antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), to modern viral-vector-mediated gene therapy. In the past decade, the therapeutic landscape has been changing rapidly, giving rise to a multitude of innovative therapy approaches. In 2018, the FDA approval of patisiran paved the way for small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to become a novel class of nucleic-acid-based therapeutics, which—upon effective drug delivery to their target cells—allow to elegantly regulate the post-transcriptional gene expression. The recent approvals of valoctocogene roxaparvovec and etranacogene dezaparvovec for the treatment of hemophilia A and B, respectively, mark the breakthrough of viral-vector-based gene therapy as a new tool to cure disease. A multitude of highly innovative medicines and drug delivery methods including mRNA-based cancer vaccines and exosome-targeted therapy is on the verge of entering the market and changing the treatment landscape for a broad range of conditions. In this review, we provide insights into three different disease entities, which are clinically, scientifically, and socioeconomically impactful and have given rise to many technological advancements: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) as a predominant infectious disease, pancreatic carcinoma as one of the most lethal solid cancers, and hemophilia A/B as a hereditary genetic disorder. Our primary objective is to highlight the overarching principles of biological barriers that can be identified across different disease areas. Our second goal is to showcase which therapeutic approaches designed to cross disease-specific biological barriers have been promising in effectively treating disease. In this context, we will exemplify how the right selection of the drug category and delivery vehicle, mode of administration, and therapeutic target(s) can help overcome various biological barriers to prevent, treat, and cure disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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16 pages, 560 KiB

Open AccessReview

Assessment of Infant Exposure to Antidepressants through Breastfeeding: A Literature Review of Currently Available Approaches

by Leah Arbitman, Shirley Chen, Brian Kim, Melinda Lee, Peng Zou, Bennett Doughty, Yanyan Li and Tao Zhang

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(7), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16070847 - 22 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2579

Abstract

Despite the prevalence of depression in lactating mothers, there is a lack of knowledge about the excretion of antidepressants into breast milk and its potential adverse effects on infants. This creates concern, making depressed lactating mothers more likely to avoid pharmacological treatment. Clinical lactation studies are the most accurate and direct method to predict and demonstrate the excretion of antidepressants into human breast milk, and results from clinical studies can be included in drug labels to help physicians and patients make decisions on antidepressant use during lactation. However, there are limited clinical trials and studies on the pharmacokinetics of antidepressants in lactating women because of a lack of enrollment and ethical and confounding factors, creating a lack of knowledge in this area. To bridge this gap in knowledge, alternative methods should be sought to help estimate the antidepressant concentration in breast milk, which is used to assess the safety and transfer of antidepressants into breast milk. We provide a comprehensive review of the usage of these cost-effective, time-efficient, and ethically feasible methods that serve to provide a valuable estimation of the safety and transfer of antidepressants into breast milk before conducting clinical studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transport of Drugs through Biological Barriers—an Asset or Risk)

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