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Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery

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A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Clays and Engineered Mineral Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2025) | Viewed by 12581

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Guanzheng Zhuang

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School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
Interests: drilling fluids; fracturing fluid; clay minerals
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Qiang Li

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Guest Editor

Petroleum College, China University of Petroleum-Beijing at Karamay, Karamay 834000, China
Interests: petroleum engineering; oilfield chemistry; clay-based hybrid material

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Clay minerals are widely distributed in oil and gas sedimentary basins and play a pivotal role in the generation and extraction of hydrocarbons. They not only affect the formation and migration of hydrocarbons, but also have an impact on subsequent exploration, extraction, and enhanced oil recovery. The interaction between clay minerals and organic matter significantly affects the thermal maturity and quality of generated hydrocarbons, and the adsorption characteristics of clay minerals will also alter the migration path of underground oil and gas. In the drilling process, the identification and analysis of clay minerals are crucial for accurately describing reservoir properties. Problems such as clay swelling, particle migration, and clay–fluid interaction pose major challenges to wellbore stability and enhanced oil recovery, thus placing higher demands on drilling technology and extraction theory. Therefore, in-depth research on the role of clay minerals in oil and gas formation, migration, exploitation, and enhanced oil recovery will help to better understand their key role in the petroleum industry. In particular, clay minerals, as a material with special physical and chemical properties, are extensively employed in the preparation of drilling fluids. The development of clay minerals and clay-based composite materials will contribute to the availability of high-performance drilling fluids for more complex and demanding formations.

This Special Issue aims to explore the critical interactions between clay minerals and hydrocarbon systems and to expand the applications of clay minerals in the petroleum industry. It will cover a wide range of topics, including but not limited to, the following:

Clay mineralogy in source rocks: The role of clay minerals in the formation, accumulation, and thermal maturation of organic matter in source rocks.
Petroleum geology and mineralogy: Relationship of clay mineral content and distribution to hydrocarbon reservoir properties.
Enhanced oil recovery: The impact of clay minerals on enhanced oil recovery techniques.
Applications in drilling fluids: The effects of clay minerals on drilling fluid properties and the use of clay-based composites in drilling fluids.
Environmental considerations: The role of clay minerals in mitigating the environmental impacts during oil and gas production, including their use in pollution control and soil remediation.

We look forward to your valuable contributions and to submitting your research that will serve as a key reference for researchers and professionals engaged in the study and application of clay minerals in oil and gas generation, exploration, and enhanced recovery.

Dr. Guanzheng Zhuang
Dr. Qiang Li
Guest Editors

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Keywords

clay mineral
petroleum and natural gas engineering
drilling fluids
surface interaction
colloidal chemistry
enhanced oil recovery

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 6370 KB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Hydrothermal Carbon/Bentonite Composites in Improving the Thermal Stability, Filtration, and Lubrication of Water-Based Drilling Fluids

by Yubin Zhang, Daqi Li, Xianguang Wang, Changzhi Chen and Hanyi Zhong

Minerals 2025, 15(12), 1263; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15121263 - 28 Nov 2025

Viewed by 140

Abstract

With the increasing harsh drilling environments encountered more frequently than ever before, developing environmentally benign and multifunctional additives is essential to formulate high performance drilling fluids. Herein, hydrothermal carbon/bentonite composites (HCBCs) were prepared by a hydrothermal carbonization reaction using soluble starch and sodium bentonite as raw materials. A systematic investigation was conducted into the effects of HCBC concentration on the rheological, filtration, and lubricating characteristics of xanthan gum, modified starch, and high-temperature polymer slurries. These properties were evaluated before and after exposure to hot rolling at different temperatures. The hydroxyl radical scavenging properties of HCBC were evaluated. Observation showed plentiful micro- and nano-sized carbon spheres deposited on the bentonite particles, endowing the bentonite with better dispersion. HCBCs could maintain stability of the water-based drilling fluids’ rheological profile, decrease filtration loss, and improve the lubrication with relatively low concentrations. The excellent properties were attributed to the highly efficient scavenging of free radicals and the stabilization of bentonite particle dispersion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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23 pages, 5183 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mineral Characterization and High Resistivity Analysis of Ultra-Deep Shale from Mahu Sag, China

by Yangfei Yu, Ding Zhang, Panpan Zhang, Zongjie Mu, Shouceng Tian, Yawen Tan and Ronghao Zhou

Minerals 2025, 15(11), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15111171 - 7 Nov 2025

Viewed by 293

Abstract

Ultra-deep shale in the Mahu Sag, characterized by difficult-to-drill formations, exhibits high resistivity. This study uses XRD and petrophysical testing on 12 dry core samples (depths 4600–5000 m) to characterize mineral composition and evaluate resistivity-influencing factors. Mineralogical analysis reveals that brittle minerals, dominated by quartz and feldspar (>50%), constitute the primary components of the ultra-deep shale in the Mahu Sag, with quartz, feldspar, and carbonates collectively accounting for ~80%. Clay (~6%) and pyrite (<5%) contents are notably low, resulting in elevated resistivities of 10⁵–10⁷ Ω·m. Resistivity correlates negatively with pyrite (r = −0.588) and feldspar (r = −0.319) but positively with dolomite (r = 0.209), quartz (r = 0.017), and porosity (r = 0.749). At elevated temperatures (100 °C), resistivity declines owing to enhanced ionic conduction. These findings clarify high-resistivity mechanisms, supporting resistivity-based drilling parameter optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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13 pages, 7481 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Hydration on Shale Reservoirs: A Case Study of Gulong Shale Oil

by Feifei Fang, Ke Xu, Yu Zhang, Yu Wang, Zhimin Xu, Sijie He, Hui Huang, Hailong Wang, Weixiang Jin and Yue Gong

Minerals 2025, 15(8), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080878 - 21 Aug 2025

Viewed by 787

Abstract

In the process of the exploration and development of shale oil, the influence of hydration on shale reservoirs is complex, as it can not only improve porosity and permeability, but also lead to reservoir instability. At present, there is a lack of systematic understanding of the influence of hydration on the physical and chemical properties of shale oil reservoirs. Therefore, in this study, taking the Gulong shale oil reservoir in Songliao Basin as the research object, X-ray diffraction mineral composition analysis, electron microscope scanning, and micro-CT scanning were used to study the micro–macro-changes in shale caused by hydration, and the effects of different fracturing fluids on hydration were evaluated. The results show the following: (1) Hydration increases the porosity and permeability of Gulong shale through clay dispersion and dissolution pore formation, though these transient effects may compromise long-term reservoir stability due to pore-throat clogging. (2) Prolonged hydration significantly enhanced pore structure complexity, with tortuosity increasing by 64.7% (from 2.19 to 3.60) and the fractal dimension rising by 7.5% (from 1.99 to 2.14) with hydration time, and the proportion of larger pores (50–100 μm) increased significantly. (3) Hydration leads to crack propagation and new cracks, and the intersection of cracks reduces the core strength, which may eventually lead to macroscopic damage. (4) The influence of different fracturing fluids on the hydration reaction is obviously different. The higher the concentration, the stronger the hydration effect. Distilled water helps to increase porosity and permeability, but long-term effects may affect reservoir stability. The results of this paper reveal the changes in micro- and macro-characteristics of shale oil reservoirs under hydration, which is of great significance for analyzing the mechanism of hydration and provides theoretical support for improving shale oil recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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19 pages, 3923 KB

Open AccessArticle

Palygorskite as an Extender Agent in Light Cement Pastes for Oil Wells: Performance Analysis

by Rafael A. Ventura, José V. A. Carvalho, Raphael R. da Silva, Francisco G. H. S. Pinto, Júlio C. O. Freitas and Sibele B. C. Pergher

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060637 - 11 Jun 2025

Viewed by 830

Abstract

Cementing operations are among the most critical steps in oil-well construction. When performed improperly, the integrity and useful life of the well can be significantly compromised. Light cement pastes are used to cement formations with a low fracture gradient to ensure zonal isolation and maintain the integrity of the casing. Extenders are additives used to reduce the density of cement pastes, ensuring that the paste has desirable properties before and after setting. This work aimed to evaluate the application of palygorskite clay as an additive in lightweight cement pastes for oil wells, highlighting how its fibrous morphology influences the microstructure and enhances the macroscopic properties of the hardened cement matrix. For this, the clay sample was initially characterized regarding its physicochemical properties using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), thermogravimetry (TG), textural analysis (BET/N₂), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Lightweight pastes (1.56 g/cm³) were then formulated, varying the clay concentration by 1%, 3%, and 6% of the total mass. Cement pastes using bentonite were also formulated for comparison. Technological tests of atmospheric consistency, rheological behavior, free water, and stability were applied. It can be noted that the pastes formulated with palygorskite had lower viscosity, reflected in the reduced plastic viscosity and yield stress values, indicating easier flow behavior when compared with bentonite-based pastes. The pastes formulated with 6% palygorskite and 3% bentonite showed satisfactory stability and drawdown results. Therefore, applying palygorskite satisfies the minimum requirements for acting as an extending agent for lightweight cement pastes and is an option for application in oil-well cementing operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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16 pages, 6763 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing the Mechanism of Drilling Losses in the Zhengning Oilfield in the Ordos Basin

by Tuan Gu, Shugang Yang, Yunfeng Xiao, Linpeng Zhang, Fangquan Peng, Xu Su, Tao Fan, Haiyang Wang and Desheng Zhou

Minerals 2025, 15(1), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15010085 - 17 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1004

Abstract

Frequent wellbore loss incidents in the Mesozoic reservoirs of the Zhengning oilfield in the Ordos Basin, China, have severely impacted the development of tight oil and gas reservoirs in the basin. This study analyzed the mineral composition, microstructure, natural fracture distribution, and hydration–dispersion characteristics of rocks in the loss-prone intervals of the Mesozoic reservoirs using a laboratory experimental system. The effects of natural fractures and drilling fluid immersion on the mechanical properties and failure behavior of the rocks were investigated, and the wellbore loss mechanisms in the Mesozoic reservoirs of the Zhengning oilfield were comprehensively analyzed. Experimental results show that the reservoir rocks in the loss-prone intervals are widely distributed, with natural fractures having a width of 0.2–0.3 mm, and the clay mineral content is generally above 40%. When the relative content of illite/smectite interstratification exceeds 80%, the rock exhibits strong hydration–dispersion behavior, with a thermal recovery rate of less than 85%. Drilling fluid immersion causes the rock mass to become unstable. The presence of natural fractures and the hydration–dispersion effect significantly weaken the strength of the surrounding rock mass, leading to enhanced rock plasticity. During drilling, the expansion and interconnection of natural fractures, combined with the hydration–dispersion effect, are the main causes of wellbore loss incidents. Our study clarifies the mechanisms underlying wellbore loss incidents in the Zhengning oilfield and provides reliable experimental evidence for preventing such incidents in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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13 pages, 3557 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Preparation and Performance Evaluation of Small-Molecule Ammonium as a Shale Hydration Inhibitor

by Quande Wang, Huifeng He, Yarui Zhao, Jing Rui, Ruichen Jiang, Michal Slaný, Gang Chen and Xuefan Gu

Minerals 2024, 14(11), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111117 - 3 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1566

Abstract

In this paper, small-molecule quaternary ammonium salts were synthesized by N-alkylation to inhibit hydration swelling and hydration dispersion. The prepared small-molecule quaternary ammonium salt was characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), particle size analysis and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and its performance as an inhibitor in clay was evaluated by an anti-swelling test and a linear swelling test. The results show that small-molecule quaternary ammonium salt (TEE-2) synthesized by triethanolamine and epichlorohydrin in ethanol with a molar ratio of 1:1.5 can successfully inhibit the hydration swelling and dispersion of clay. The anti-swelling rate of TEE-2 was 84.94%, the linear swelling rate was 36.42%, and the linear swelling rate of 0.5% TEE-2 was only 29.34%. The hydration swelling of clay in 0.5% TEE-2 solution was significantly inhibited. The hydration inhibition mechanism of the small-molecule quaternary ammonium salt inhibitor 0.5% TEE-2 was analyzed by FTIR, SEM and TGA. It was considered that 0.5% TEE-2 has strong hydration inhibition, which was realized by infiltration and adsorption on the clay surface. Small-molecule quaternary ammonium salts were beneficial for maintaining wellbore stability and reducing the risk of wellbore instability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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Review

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21 pages, 3173 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Greensand Reservoirs’ Petrophysical Controls

by Daniela Navarro-Perez, Quentin Fisher, Piroska Lorinczi, Aníbal Velásquez Arauna and Jose Valderrama Puerto

Minerals 2025, 15(12), 1280; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15121280 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 12

Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the petrophysical controls influencing greensand reservoirs, with an emphasis on the role of glauconite and associated clay minerals in determining porosity, permeability, and water saturation. Greensands contain iron-rich clay minerals that exert paramagnetic and conductive effects, challenging conventional well-log interpretations and often leading to biased estimates of reservoir parameters. Several challenges for petrophysical property measurements are faced in the laboratory due to clay-induced pore-throat obstruction and microporosity, which underscores the importance of tailored interpretation workflows and data integration. In this paper we highlight the necessity of integrated approaches such as combining core analysis, spectral gamma-ray, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging with conventional well logs to calibrate petrophysical models using shale–sand water saturation models, such as Waxman–Smits and Simandoux, to better characterise economical pay zones. Finally, future research directions are indicated, which include refining the calibration of saturation and permeability models, advancing rock-typing methodologies, and understanding mineralogical influences on reservoir quality to optimise hydrocarbon recovery from greensand reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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24 pages, 6690 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advanced Trends in Shale Mechanical Inhibitors for Enhanced Wellbore Stability in Water-Based Drilling Fluids

by Erxin Ai, Qi Li, Zhikun Liu, Bo Zhang, Liupeng Wang and Chengyun Ma

Minerals 2024, 14(12), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121197 - 25 Nov 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4047

Abstract

Wellbore instability, particularly in shale formations, presents a great challenge to modern drilling operations. Although conventional chemical inhibitors are frequently employed in water-based drilling fluids, they may not always function in highly reactive or naturally fractured shale formations. In recent years, mechanical inhibitors have attracted attention as a complementary solution to chemical methods. These inhibitors, which include carbon-based, silicon-based, metal-based, and mineral-based particle materials, provide structural support to the wellbore by physically plugging fractures and sealing microfractures. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the mineral types associated with shale wellbore instability as well as a critical analysis of the mechanisms, categories, and effectiveness of mechanical inhibitors in enhancing wellbore stability. The development challenges and prospects of mechanical inhibitors in water-based drilling fluids are also discussed. This review emphasizes the potential of mechanical inhibitors in reducing fluid invasion, preventing wellbore collapse, and improving overall drilling efficiency, which will help facilitate the development and large-scale application of mechanical inhibitors in drilling fluids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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16 pages, 2871 KB

Open AccessReview

Application of Nanofibrous Clay Minerals in Water-Based Drilling Fluids: Principles, Methods, and Challenges

by Guanzheng Zhuang, Jiajun Zhang, Jinrong Chen, Qian Liu, Wenxiao Fan and Qiang Li

Minerals 2024, 14(8), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080842 - 21 Aug 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2382

Abstract

Nanofibrous clay minerals, specifically palygorskite (Pal) and sepiolite (Sep), have been becoming a new generation of rheological additives for drilling fluid systems due to their unique nanostructure, high performance, environmentally benign nature, and cost-effectiveness. These nanoclay minerals exhibit excellent colloidal and rheological properties in aqueous systems, even in saline and high-temperature environments. Although Pal and Sep have been employed as auxiliary rheological additives in a few cases to enhance the salt resistance of conventional water-based drilling fluids (WBDFs), these two clay minerals have not yet been used on a large scale due to a lack of understanding of their structures and properties, as well as the control of their performance. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the clay mineralogy, colloidal chemistry, rheological behaviors, and filtration properties of nanofibrous clay minerals in WBDFs, with critical comments. It also discusses the challenges and prospects for further research. This review provides new insights into fundamental and applied studies of nanofibrous clay minerals and helps promote the large-scale application of nanofibrous clay products in drilling fluids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clay Minerals: Roles in Oil and Gas Generation, Drilling, and Enhanced Recovery)

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