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Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria

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A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Antimicrobial Agents and Resistance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2022) | Viewed by 31106

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Dr. Carlo Pazzani

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Guest Editor

Department of Biology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
Interests: antimicrobial resistance; mobile and mobilisable genetic elements; genetic elements associated with antimicrobial resistance; horizontal transfer; Enterobacteriaceae; Vibrionaceae
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Maria Scrascia

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Guest Editor

Department of Biology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy
Interests: symbiotic bacteria associated with microorganisms (e.g. sponges, insects); environmental and clinical bacteria with antibacterial activity; bacteria genome analysis; bacteria horizontal gene transfer; CRISPR-Cas systems in bacteria
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Antimicrobial resistance has been recognized as an emerging problem at the world scale. The emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant bacteria have a wide range of repercussions, particularly in the choice of appropriate antimicrobials in clinical field and anthropogenic activities such as farming. Hospital-acquired infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria have increasingly been reported over the last few decades, and in the absence of newly developed molecules, infections by multidrug-resistant bacteria are, in forthcoming years, expected to represent one of the leading causes of death. The upsurge of resistance is mainly due to the diffusion of resistance genes through the often excessive use of antimicrobials which operate a selection of both drug-resistant bacteria and genetic elements associated with antimicrobial resistance genes. Plasmids, transposons, insertion sequences, and integrons are among the genetic elements that more greatly contribute to the spread of antimicrobial resistance genes. These genetic elements allow a continuous intra- and intercellular dialogue among them and with chromosomes. Their mediated gene shuffling and horizontal transfer let bacteria shift their phenotypes to different antimicrobial resistances. The scope of this Special Issue is to collect original articles to update knowledge on the role played by different genetic elements in the spread of antimicrobial resistance among pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria. Manuscripts highlighting the role, in antimicrobial resistance, of genetic elements others than plasmids, transposons, insertion sequences, and integrons are also welcome. It is our pleasure to invite you to also submit review articles or short communications related to these topics.

Dr. Carlo Pazzani
Dr. Maria Scrascia
Guest Editors

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Keywords

plasmids
transposons
insertion sequences
integrons
antimicrobial resistance genes
horizontal transfer

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Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria, 2nd Edition in Microorganisms (2 articles)

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 187 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for the Special Issue “Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria”

by Maria Scrascia, Carla Calia and Carlo Pazzani

Microorganisms 2023, 11(3), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030670 - 06 Mar 2023

Viewed by 890

Abstract

Throughout human history, bacterial infections have been an omnipresent threat, which have, on occasion, resulted in devastating pandemics affecting humanity [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

Research

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19 pages, 3862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of β-Lactamase Resistance and Biofilm Genes in Pseudomonas Species Isolated from Chickens

by Hams M. A. Mohamed, Sulaiman Mohammed Alnasser, Hanan H. Abd-Elhafeez, Meshal Alotaibi, Gaber El-Saber Batiha and Waleed Younis

Microorganisms 2022, 10(10), 1975; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10101975 - 06 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1556

Abstract

Bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas are pathogens in both humans and animals. The most prevalent nosocomial pathogen is P. aeruginosa, particularly strains with elevated antibiotic resistance. In this study, a total of eighteen previously identified Pseudomonas species strains, were isolated from chicken. These strains were screened for biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance. In addition, we evaluated clove oil’s effectiveness against Pseudomonas isolates as an antibiofilm agent. The results showed that Pseudomonas species isolates were resistant to most antibiotics tested, particularly those from the β-lactamase family. A significant correlation (p < 0.05) between the development of multidrug-resistant isolates and biofilms is too informal. After amplifying the AmpC-plasmid-mediated genes (bla_CMY, bla_MIR, DHA, and FOX) and biofilm-related genes (psld, rhlA, and pelA) in most of our isolates, PCR confirmed this relationship. Clove oil has a potent antibiofilm effect against Pseudomonas isolates, and may provide a treatment for bacteria that form biofilms and are resistant to antimicrobials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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12 pages, 1876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Plasmid Carrying bla_IMP-56 in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Belonging to a Novel Resistance Plasmid Family

by Jessica Gómez-Martínez, Rosa del Carmen Rocha-Gracia, Elena Bello-López, Miguel Angel Cevallos, Miguel Castañeda-Lucio, Alma López-García, Yolanda Sáenz, Guadalupe Jiménez-Flores, Gerardo Cortés-Cortés and Patricia Lozano-Zarain

Microorganisms 2022, 10(9), 1863; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10091863 - 17 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2142

Abstract

bla_IMP and bla_VIM are the most detected plasmid-encoded carbapenemase genes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Previous studies have reported plasmid sequences carrying bla_IMP variants, except bla_IMP-56. In this study, we aimed to characterize a plasmid carrying bla_IMP-56 in a P. aeruginosa strain isolated from a Mexican hospital. The whole genome of P. aeruginosa strain PE52 was sequenced using Illumina Miseq 2 × 150 bp, with 5 million paired-end reads. We characterized a 27 kb plasmid (pPE52IMP) that carried bla_IMP-56. The phylogenetic analysis of RepA in pPE52IMP and 33 P. aeruginosa plasmids carrying resistance genes reported in the GenBank revealed that pPE52IMP and four plasmids (pMATVIM-7, unnamed (FDAARGOS_570), pD5170990, and pMRVIM0713) were in the same clade. These closely related plasmids belonged to the MOB_P11 subfamily and had similar backbones. Another plasmid (p4130-KPC) had a similar backbone to pPE52IMP; however, its RepA was truncated. In these plasmids, the resistance genes bla_KPC-2, bla_VIM variants, aac(6′)-Ib4, bla_OXA variants, and bla_IMP-56 were inserted between phd and resolvase genes. This study describes a new family of plasmids carrying resistance genes, with a similar backbone, the same RepA, and belonging to the MOB_P11 subfamily in P. aeruginosa. In addition, our characterized plasmid harboring bla_IMP-56 (pPE52IMP) belongs to this family. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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12 pages, 685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Characterisation of pST1023 A Mosaic, Multidrug-Resistant and Mobilisable IncR Plasmid

by Carla Calia, Marta Oliva, Massimo Ferrara, Crescenzio Francesco Minervini, Maria Scrascia, Rosa Monno, Giuseppina Mulè, Cosimo Cumbo, Angelo Marzella and Carlo Pazzani

Microorganisms 2022, 10(8), 1592; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10081592 - 08 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1759

Abstract

We report the identification and characterisation of a mosaic, multidrug-resistant and mobilisable IncR plasmid (pST1023) detected in Salmonella ST1023, a monophasic variant 4,[5],12:i: strain of widespread pandemic lineage, reported as a Southern European clone. pST1023 contains exogenous DNA regions, principally gained from pSLT-derivatives and IncI1 plasmids. Acquisition from IncI1 included oriT and nikAB and these conferred the ability to be mobilisable in the presence of a helper plasmid, as we demonstrated with the conjugative plasmids pST1007-1D (IncFII) or pVC1035 (IncC). A sul3-associated class 1 integron, conferring resistance to aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol and trimethoprim-sulphonamides, was also embedded in the acquired IncI1 DNA segment. pST1023 also harboured an additional site-specific recombination system (rfsF/rsdB) and IS elements of the IS1, IS5 (IS903 group) and IS6 families. Four of the six IS26 elements present constituted two pseudo-compound-transposons, named PCT-sil and PCT-Tn10 (identified here for the first time). The study further highlighted the mosaic genetic architecture and the clinical importance of IncR plasmids. Moreover, it provides the first experimental data on the ability of IncR plasmids to be mobilised and their potential role in the horizontal spread of antimicrobial-resistant genes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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16 pages, 4422 KiB

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Molecular Characterization of pBOq-IncQ and pBOq-95LK Plasmids of Escherichia coli BOq 01, a New Isolated Strain from Poultry Farming, Involved in Antibiotic Resistance

by Armando Hernández-Mendoza, Rosalba Salgado-Morales, Abimael Morán-Vázquez, David López-Torres, Blanca Inés García-Gómez and Edgar Dantán-González

Microorganisms 2022, 10(8), 1509; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10081509 - 26 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1524

Abstract

The increase in antimicrobial resistance has raised questions about how to use these drugs safely, especially in veterinary medicine, animal nutrition, and agriculture. Escherichia coli is an important human and animal pathogen that frequently contains plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance genes. Extra chromosomal elements are required for various functions or conditions in microorganisms. Several phage-like plasmids have been identified, which are important in antibiotic resistance. In this work, the molecular characterization of the pBOq-IncQ (4.5 kb) and pBOq-95LK (95 kb) plasmids found in the E. coli strain BOq 01, a multidrug resistant bacteria isolated from a poultry farm, are considered. Plasmid pBOq-IncQ belongs to the incQ incompatibility plasmid family and is involved in sulfonamide resistance. Plasmid pBOq-95LK is a lytic phage-like plasmid that is involved in the lysis of the E. coli BOq 01 strain and carries a bleomycin resistance gene and a strain cured of this plasmid shows bleomycin sensitivity. Induction of the lytic cycle indicates that this phage-like plasmid is an active phage. This type of plasmid has been reported to acquire genes such as mcr-1, which codes for colistin resistance and bacterial persistence and is a significant public health threat. A genome comparison, a pangenomic and phylogenomic analysis with other phage-like plasmids reported in the literature were performed to understand better the evolution of this kind of plasmid in bacteria and its potential importance in antibiotic resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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14 pages, 549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution and Transfer of Plasmid Replicon Families among Multidrug-Resistant Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium from Poultry

by Sohyun Cho, Elizabeth A. McMillan, John B. Barrett, Lari M. Hiott, Tiffanie A. Woodley, Sandra L. House, Jonathan G. Frye and Charlene R. Jackson

Microorganisms 2022, 10(6), 1244; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10061244 - 17 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2004

Abstract

The presence and transfer of plasmids from commensal bacteria to more pathogenic bacteria may contribute to the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. However, the prevalence of plasmids from commensal bacteria, such as the enterococci, in food animals remains largely unknown. In this study, the diversity and prevalence of plasmid families from multidrug-resistant (MDR; resistance to three or more antimicrobials) enterococci from poultry carcasses were determined. Plasmid-positive MDR enterococci were also tested for the ability to transfer plasmids to other enterococci using conjugation. MDR Enterococcus faecalis (n = 98) and Enterococcus faecium (n = 696) that were isolated from poultry carcass rinsates between 2004 and 2011 were tested for the presence of 21 plasmid replicon (rep) families using multiplex PCR. Approximately 48% of E. faecalis (47/98) and 16% of E. faecium (110/696) were positive for at least one rep-family. Fourteen rep-families were detected overall, and ten rep-families were shared between E. faecalis and E. faecium. The rep₇ and rep₁₇ families were unique to E. faecalis, while the rep₅ and rep₈ families were unique to E. faecium. The rep₉ family was predominant in both E. faecalis and E. faecium for all the years tested. The greatest number of rep-families detected was in 2005 (n = 10), and the least was in 2009 (n = 1). Eight rep-families were transferred from E. faecalis donors to the E. faecalis JH2-2 recipient using conjugation. Results from this study showed that E. faecalis and E. faecium from poultry carcasses contain numerous and diverse rep-families that are capable of conjugal transfer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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16 pages, 1876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Whole Genome Characterization of the High-Risk Clone ST383 Klebsiella pneumoniae with a Simultaneous Carriage of bla_CTX-M-14 on IncL/M Plasmid and bla_CTX-M-15 on Convergent IncHI1B/IncFIB Plasmid from Egypt

by Eva A. Edward, Nelly M. Mohamed and Azza S. Zakaria

Microorganisms 2022, 10(6), 1097; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10061097 - 26 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2362

Abstract

Recently, Egypt has witnessed the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Klebsiella pneumoniae, which has posed a serious healthcare challenge. The accelerated dissemination of bla_CTX-M genes among these MDR K. pneumoniae, particularly bla_CTX-M-14 and bla_CTX-M-15, have been noted. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of bla_CTX-M-IV among K. pneumoniae recovered from the laboratory of a major hospital in Alexandria. The 23 tested isolates showed an MDR phenotype and the bla_CTX-M-IV gene was detected in ≈22% of the isolates. The transformation of plasmids harboring bla_CTX-M-IV to chemically competent cells of Escherichia coli DH5α was successful in three out of five of the tested bla_CTX-M-IV-positive isolates. Whole genome sequencing of K22 indicated that the isolate belonged to the high-risk clone ST383, showing a simultaneous carriage of bla_CTX-M-14 on IncL/M plasmid, i.e., pEGY22_CTX-M-14, and bla_CTX-M-15 on a hybrid IncHI1B/IncFIB plasmid, pEGY22_CTX-M-15. Alignment of both plasmids revealed high similarity with those originating in the UK, Germany, Australia, Russia, China, Saudi Arabia, and Morocco. pEGY22_CTX-M-15 was a mosaic plasmid that demonstrated convergence of MDR and virulence genes. The emergence of such a plasmid with enhanced genetic plasticity constitutes the perfect path for the evolution of K. pneumoniae isolates causing invasive untreatable infections especially in a country with a high burden of infectious diseases such as Egypt. Therefore there is an imperative need for countrywide surveillances to monitor the prevalence of these superbugs with limited therapeutic options. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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7 pages, 11719 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

The Use of Long-Read Sequencing Technologies in Infection Control: Horizontal Transfer of a bla_CTX-M-27 Containing lncFII Plasmid in a Patient Screening Sample

by Vincent van Almsick, Franziska Schuler, Alexander Mellmann and Vera Schwierzeck

Microorganisms 2022, 10(3), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10030491 - 23 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1779

Abstract

Plasmid transfer is one important mechanism how antimicrobial resistance can spread between different species, contributing to the rise of multidrug resistant bacteria (MDRB) worldwide. Here were present whole genome sequencing (WGS) data of two MDRB isolates, an Escherichia coli and a Klebsiella quasipneumoniae, which were isolated from a single patient. Detailed analysis of long-read sequencing data identified an identical F2:A-:B- lncFII plasmid containing bla_CTX-M-27 in both isolates, suggesting horizontal plasmid exchange between the two species. As the plasmid of the E. coli strain carried multiple copies of the resistance cassette, the genomic data correlated with the increased antimicrobial resistance (AMR) detected for this isolate. Our case report demonstrates how long-read sequencing data of MDRB can be used to investigate the role of plasmid mediate resistance in the healthcare setting and explain resistance phenotypes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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9 pages, 2010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic Comparison of Conjugative Plasmids from Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli Encoding Beta-Lactamases and Capable of Mobilizing Kanamycin Resistance Col-like Plasmids

by Elizabeth A. McMillan, Ly-Huong T. Nguyen, Lari M. Hiott, Poonam Sharma, Charlene R. Jackson, Jonathan G. Frye and Chin-Yi Chen

Microorganisms 2021, 9(11), 2205; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9112205 - 23 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2341

Abstract

Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli are important human pathogens that frequently contain plasmids, both large and small, carrying antibiotic resistance genes. Large conjugative plasmids are known to mobilize small Col plasmids, but less is known about the specificity of mobilization. In the current study, six S. enterica and four E. coli strains containing large plasmids were tested for their ability to mobilize three different kanamycin resistance Col plasmids (KanR plasmids). Large conjugative plasmids from five isolates, four S. enterica and one E. coli, were able to mobilize KanR plasmids of various types. Plasmids capable of mobilizing the KanR plasmids were either IncI1 or IncX, while IncI1 and IncX plasmids with no evidence of conjugation had disrupted transfer regions. Conjugative plasmids of similar types mobilized similar KanR plasmids, but not all conjugative plasmid types were capable of mobilizing all of the KanR plasmids. These data describe some of the complexities and specificities of individual small plasmid mobilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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16 pages, 3345 KiB

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Antimicrobial Resistance and Comparative Genome Analysis of Klebsiella pneumoniae Strains Isolated in Egypt

by Radwa Abdelwahab, Munirah M. Alhammadi, Ehsan A. Hassan, Entsar H. Ahmed, Nagla H. Abu-Faddan, Enas A. Daef, Stephen J. W. Busby and Douglas F. Browning

Microorganisms 2021, 9(9), 1880; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9091880 - 05 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3320

Abstract

Klebsiella pneumoniae is an important human pathogen in both developing and industrialised countries that can causes a variety of human infections, such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections and bacteremia. Like many Gram-negative bacteria, it is becoming resistant to many frontline antibiotics, such as carbapenem and cephalosporin antibiotics. In Egypt, K. pneumoniae is increasingly recognised as an emerging pathogen, with high levels of antibiotic resistance. However, few Egyptian K. pneumoniae strains have been sequenced and characterised. Hence, here, we present the genome sequence of a multidrug resistant K. pneumoniae strain, KPE16, which was isolated from a child in Assiut, Egypt. We report that it carries multiple antimicrobial resistance genes, including a bla_NDM-1 carbapenemase and extended spectrum β-lactamase genes (i.e., bla_SHV-40, bla_TEM-1B, bla_OXA-9 and bla_CTX-M-15). By comparing this strain with other Egyptian isolates, we identified common plasmids, resistance genes and virulence determinants. Our analysis suggests that some of the resistance plasmids that we have identified are circulating in K. pneumoniae strains in Egypt, and are likely a source of antibiotic resistance throughout the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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16 pages, 1433 KiB

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Genomic Insights into Drug Resistance Determinants in Cedecea neteri, A Rare Opportunistic Pathogen

by Dorothea K. Thompson and Stephen M. Sharkady

Microorganisms 2021, 9(8), 1741; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9081741 - 15 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2289

Abstract

Cedecea, a genus in the Enterobacteriaceae family, includes several opportunistic pathogens reported to cause an array of sporadic acute infections, most notably of the lung and bloodstream. One species, Cedecea neteri, is associated with cases of bacteremia in immunocompromised hosts and has documented resistance to different antibiotics, including β-lactams and colistin. Despite the potential to inflict serious infections, knowledge about drug resistance determinants in Cedecea is limited. In this study, we utilized whole-genome sequence data available for three environmental strains (SSMD04, M006, ND14a) of C. neteri and various bioinformatics tools to analyze drug resistance genes in this bacterium. All three genomes harbor multiple chromosome-encoded β-lactamase genes. A deeper analysis of β-lactamase genes in SSMD04 revealed four metallo-β-lactamases, a novel variant, and a CMY/ACT-type AmpC putatively regulated by a divergently transcribed AmpR. Homologs of known resistance-nodulation-cell division (RND)-type multidrug efflux pumps such as OqxB, AcrB, AcrD, and MdtBC were also identified. Genomic island prediction for SSMD04 indicated that tolC, involved in drug and toxin export across the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, was acquired by a transposase-mediated genetic transfer mechanism. Our study provides new insights into drug resistance mechanisms of an environmental microorganism capable of behaving as a clinically relevant opportunistic pathogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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14 pages, 2290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic Insights into a Colistin-Resistant Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Strain of O23:H4-ST641 Lineage Harboring mcr-1.1 on a Conjugative IncHI2 Plasmid from Egypt

by Azza S. Zakaria, Eva A. Edward and Nelly M. Mohamed

Microorganisms 2021, 9(4), 799; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9040799 - 10 Apr 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2454

Abstract

The reintroduction of colistin, a last-resort antibiotic for multidrug-resistant pathogens, resulted in the global spread of plasmid-mediated mobile colistin resistance (mcr) genes. Our study investigated the occurrence of colistin resistance among Escherichia coli isolated from patients with urinary tract infections admitted to a teaching hospital in Egypt. Out of 67 isolates, three isolates were colistin-resistant, having a minimum inhibitory concentration of 4 µg/mL and possessing the mcr-1 gene. A double mechanism of colistin resistance was detected; production of mcr-1 along with amino acid substitution in PmrB (E123D and Y358N) and PmrA (G144S). Broth mating experiments inferred that mcr-1 was positioned on conjugative plasmids. Whole-genome sequencing of EC13049 indicated that the isolate belonged to O23:H4-ST641 lineage and to phylogroup D. The mcr-1-bearing plasmid corresponded to IncHI2 type with a notable similarity to other E. coli plasmids previously recovered from Egypt. The unbanned use of colistin in the Egyptian agriculture sector might have created a potential reservoir for the mcr-1 gene in food-producing animals that spread to humans. More proactive regulations must be implemented to prevent further dissemination of this resistance. This is the first characterization of mcr-1-carrying IncHI2:ST4 plasmid recovered from E. coli of a clinical source in Egypt. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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Review

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Update on the Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance and the Mobile Resistome in the Emerging Zoonotic Pathogen Streptococcus suis

by Manon Dechêne-Tempier, Corinne Marois-Créhan, Virginie Libante, Eric Jouy, Nathalie Leblond-Bourget and Sophie Payot

Microorganisms 2021, 9(8), 1765; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9081765 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3845

Abstract

Streptococcus suis is a zoonotic pathogen causing important economic losses in swine production. The most commonly used antibiotics in swine industry are tetracyclines, beta-lactams, and macrolides. Resistance to these antibiotics has already been observed worldwide (reaching high rates for macrolides and tetracyclines) as well as resistance to aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, amphenicols, and glycopeptides. Most of the resistance mechanisms are encoded by antibiotic resistance genes, and a large part are carried by mobile genetic elements (MGEs) that can be transferred through horizontal gene transfer. This review provides an update of the resistance genes, their combination in multidrug isolates, and their localization on MGEs in S. suis. It also includes an overview of the contribution of biofilm to antimicrobial resistance in this bacterial species. The identification of resistance genes and study of their localization in S. suis as well as the environmental factors that can modulate their dissemination appear essential in order to decipher the role of this bacterium as a reservoir of antibiotic genes for other species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Elements in Bacteria)

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