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Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future...
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Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects: 2nd Edition

A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Public Health Microbiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 11658

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sérgio Santos De Azevedo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, 58428-830 Campina Grande, Brazil
Interests: Leptospira sp.; leptospirosis; epidemiology; control; environment; diagnosis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue is a continuation of our 2022 Special Issue, "Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects".

Leptospirosis is an emerging zoonosis, especially in subtropical and tropical regions. The etiologic agent belongs to the order Spirochaetales, family Leptospiraceae and genus Leptospira. It affects several animal species causing great economic losses in livestock, and the negative effects of the disease on the productive and reproductive indices of ruminants are well known, causing abortion, repetition of estrus, the birth of weak animals, stillbirth and decreased production of milk, in addition to being a serious public health concern.

Leptospires are shed and maintained in the environment by several hosts, such as wild, domestic and synanthropic animals, with rodents being the main reservoirs. The disease is complex, including the natural environment, asymptomatic reservoirs and susceptible hosts. Domestic animals can get infected and act as sources of infection for other animals or humans, and the main transmission routes are direct or indirect contact with urine, placenta, vaginal fluid, venereal contact, and intrauterine infection, contributing to the endemism of the disease. Disease control becomes complex as multiple hosts can act as asymptomatic carriers or develop mild or severe disease. Humans are most commonly infected through occupational, recreational or domestic contact with the urine of carrier animals, either directly or through contaminated water or soil.

This Special Issue aims to address the current status, insights and future prospects on the epidemiology of Leptospira sp. infection, with a broad emphasis on the relevant aspects such as a deeper understanding of the biodiversity of strains that can lead to infections in both humans and animals, molecular epidemiology, improvement of diagnostic methods and new epidemiological insights. We invite the submission of reviews and original research articles.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Sérgio Santos De Azevedo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Microorganisms is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Leptospira sp.
  • leptospirosis
  • epidemiology
  • control
  • environment
  • diagnosis

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 629 KiB  
Communication
Serogroup Distribution of Leptospira Among Humans and Rodents in Zakarpattia Oblast, Ukraine (2018–2023)
by Pavlo Petakh and Oleksandr Kamyshnyi
Microorganisms 2025, 13(3), 614; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13030614 - 7 Mar 2025
Viewed by 525
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira bacteria, which affects both humans and animals. This study investigated the prevalence of Leptospira serogroups in human and rodent reservoirs across Zakarpattia Oblast, Ukraine, from 2018 to 2023. The objective was to identify epidemiological patterns [...] Read more.
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira bacteria, which affects both humans and animals. This study investigated the prevalence of Leptospira serogroups in human and rodent reservoirs across Zakarpattia Oblast, Ukraine, from 2018 to 2023. The objective was to identify epidemiological patterns and assess potential public health risks. Data were sourced from the Public Health Center of Ukraine and regional surveillance initiatives, encompassing reported human cases and rodent-carrier detection. Six main serogroups—Icterohaemorrhagiae, Pomona, Grippotyphosa, Hebdomadis, Canicola, and Tarassovi—were included in the analysis. The results showed that Pomona and Hebdomadis serogroups became more common in 2023. The data from different districts also showed regional differences, with Icterohaemorrhagiae and Pomona being the most frequent serogroups in both humans and rodents. Other serogroups, like Grippotyphosa and Canicola, were found less often. Rodents may be an important source of leptospirosis in Zakarpattia. The growing number of cases in recent years shows the need for improved monitoring, control, and prevention in the region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects: 2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 3253 KiB  
Article
Leptospirosis Risk Assessment in Rodent Populations and Environmental Reservoirs in Humanitarian Aid Settings in Thailand
by Panadda Krairojananan, Kasima Wasuworawong, Surachai Leepitakrat, Taweesak Monkanna, Elizabeth W. Wanja, Silas A. Davidson, Betty K. Poole-Smith, Patrick W. McCardle, Alyssa Mann and Erica J. Lindroth
Microorganisms 2025, 13(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13010029 - 27 Dec 2024
Viewed by 894
Abstract
Leptospirosis, a global zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira spp., presents high morbidity and mortality risks, especially in tropical regions like Thailand. Military personnel deployed in endemic areas, such as during the Cobra Gold Joint exercise, face heightened exposure. This study assessed Leptospira’s [...] Read more.
Leptospirosis, a global zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira spp., presents high morbidity and mortality risks, especially in tropical regions like Thailand. Military personnel deployed in endemic areas, such as during the Cobra Gold Joint exercise, face heightened exposure. This study assessed Leptospira’s prevalence in rodents and environmental reservoirs at military training sites from 2017 to 2022. A surveillance program was conducted at Engineering Civil Assistance Program (ENCAP) training sites using real-time PCR, dark-field microscopy, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing to detect Leptospira in rodents and environmental samples. Results showed a 1.3% infection rate in rodents (15 of 1161), while Leptospira was detected in 10.2% of water samples (42 of 413) and 23.1% of soil samples (30 of 130). Diverse Leptospira interrogans strains circulated among rodents, and three groups of naturally circulating Leptospira strains were detected in environmental reservoirs. These findings underscore Leptospira’s survival and transmission potential within exercise sites, informing Force Health Protection (FHP) decisions. By integrating pre-exercise data on primary hosts and environmental reservoirs with historical local outbreak records and research on risk factors, this study identifies key areas for public health intervention and potential mitigation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects: 2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 1577 KiB  
Article
Isolation of Virulent Leptospira Serogroup Australis Field Strains from Symptomatic Dogs for Canine Leptospiral Vaccine Development
by Pierre Bergamo, Marine Le Guyader, Marine Hugonnard, Pascale Bourhy, Nathalie Simon-Dufay, Jérôme Bouvet, Jean-Christophe Thibault and Lionel Cupillard
Microorganisms 2024, 12(10), 1946; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12101946 - 25 Sep 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1370
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis caused by spirochaetes belonging to the pathogenic species of Leptospira, which are classified into more than 25 serogroups and 250 serovars. Vaccination can prevent the disease in dogs but offers incomplete efficacy because of a lack of [...] Read more.
Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis caused by spirochaetes belonging to the pathogenic species of Leptospira, which are classified into more than 25 serogroups and 250 serovars. Vaccination can prevent the disease in dogs but offers incomplete efficacy because of a lack of cross-protection between serogroups. The aim of this study was to validate a robust recruitment and sampling process, with the objectives of isolating and typing circulating Leptospira pathogenic strains and then selecting those of proven virulence and pathogenicity for vaccine development. Blood and urine samples from dogs with clinical syndromes compatible with acute leptospirosis were sterilely collected and transported to a reference laboratory for a micro-agglutination test (MAT), PCR, and bacterial isolation. Isolated strains underwent molecular typing using RNA16S, variable-number tandem repeat (VNTR), and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Subtyping was performed using core genome multilocus sequence typing (CgMLST). Among 64 included dogs, 41 had MAT and/or PCR results compatible with Leptospira infection, and 14 Leptospira strains were isolated. Based on molecular typing, 11 isolates were classified as L. interrogans serogroup Australis, serovar Bratislava, and 3 as serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae, serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae. CgMLST subtyping revealed a diversity of clonal groups (CGs) distributed in several regional clusters. Besides validating a robust recruitment and sampling process, this study outlines the value of combining PCR and serological testing when suspecting leptospirosis and the usefulness of implementing molecular typing methods to identify circulating field strains. It also confirms the epidemiological importance of the Australis serogroup and allows for the collection of different highly pathogenic strains for vaccine development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects: 2nd Edition)
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11 pages, 542 KiB  
Article
The Role of Transplacental Infection in Leptospira spp. Epidemiology in Cattle in Caatinga Biome, Brazil
by Nathanael Natércio da Costa Barnabé, Rafael Rodrigues Soares, Deivyson Kelvis Silva Barros, João Pessoa Araújo Júnior, Camila Dantas Malossi, Maria Luana Cristiny Rodrigues Silva, Arthur Willian de Lima Brasil, Diego Figueiredo da Costa, Severino Silvano dos Santos Higino, Carolina de Sousa Américo Batista Santos, Sérgio Santos de Azevedo and Clebert José Alves
Microorganisms 2024, 12(6), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12061044 - 22 May 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2002
Abstract
Leptospirosis is an infectious disease that affects domestic animals, wild animals, and humans. It represents a public health problem and has an important economic impact on livestock. This study aims to investigate the importance of genital and transplacental infection in the epidemiology of [...] Read more.
Leptospirosis is an infectious disease that affects domestic animals, wild animals, and humans. It represents a public health problem and has an important economic impact on livestock. This study aims to investigate the importance of genital and transplacental infection in the epidemiology of leptospirosis in cows maintained in Caatinga biome conditions, Northeastern Brazil, as well as reporting organs colonized by Leptospira spp. in embryos and fetuses. Blood, urinary tract (urine, bladder, and kidney), and reproductive tract (vaginal fluid, uterus, uterine tube, ovary, and placenta) samples were collected from 15 slaughtered pregnant cows. Two embryos and 13 fetuses were sampled. Central nervous system and choroid ovoid samples were collected from embryos. Blood, central nervous system, lung, peritoneal liquid, abomasal content, liver, spleen, urine, bladder, kidney, and reproductive system samples were collected from fetuses. Diagnostic methods included the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) using a collection of 24 serovars belonging to 17 different pathogenic serogroups of five species as antigens, as well as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies were found in 9 cows (60%), while 13 cows (86.67%) had at least one organ or urine with leptospiral DNA. No fetus was seroreactive. Among the embryos and fetuses, 13 (86.67%) presented leptospiral DNA, proving a high frequency of transplacental infection (100%). For cows, the most frequent biological materials regarding Leptospira spp. DNA detection were placenta (13 out of 15 samples; 86.7%), uterus (10 out of 15 samples; 66.7%), and vaginal fluid (5 out of 15 samples; 33.3%), while, for fetuses/embryos, the most frequent PCR-positive samples were choroid ovoid (1/2; 50%), spleen (6/13; 46.2%), kidney (5/13; 38.5%), and central nervous system (5/15; 33.3%). Sequenced samples based on the LipL32 gene presented 99% similarity with L. borgpetersenii. The results indicate that transplacental infection is an efficient way of spreading Leptospira spp. in cows maintained in Caatinga biome conditions. Therefore, prevention and control strategies must include actions that interrupt transmission through this alternative route. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects: 2nd Edition)
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10 pages, 1136 KiB  
Communication
Association between Exposure to Leptospira spp. and Abortion in Mares in Croatia
by Iva Zečević, Mathieu Picardeau, Silvijo Vince, Suzana Hađina, Matko Perharić, Zrinka Štritof, Vladimir Stevanović, Iva Benvin, Nenad Turk, Ivana Lohman Janković and Josipa Habuš
Microorganisms 2024, 12(6), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12061039 - 21 May 2024
Viewed by 1300
Abstract
Leptospirosis is one of the most common zoonotic infections and a major problem in terms of both veterinary medicine and public health. However, the disease is under-recognised and under-diagnosed worldwide, particularly in horses. Clinical leptospirosis in horses is mainly associated with recurrent uveitis [...] Read more.
Leptospirosis is one of the most common zoonotic infections and a major problem in terms of both veterinary medicine and public health. However, the disease is under-recognised and under-diagnosed worldwide, particularly in horses. Clinical leptospirosis in horses is mainly associated with recurrent uveitis (ERU), which has recently been studied more intensively, and reproductive disorders, the epidemiology of which is still relatively poorly understood. To enhance our comprehension of abortions caused by leptospirosis in horses and to identify the causative strains, a serological study was carried out with subsequent molecular characterisation of the isolate obtained. Using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), serum samples from mares that aborted and foetal fluids (when available) were tested for antibodies against Leptospira spp. Furthermore, bacteria isolation from kidney cultures was conducted. Of 97 mare serum samples, 21 (21.64%) tested positive, with Grippotyphosa and Pomona being the most frequently detected serogroups. A significantly higher seroprevalence was found in aborting mares compared to the healthy horse population from the same geographical area, as well as a pronounced seasonal variation. Leptospiral antibodies were not detected in any of the foetal fluids, but isolation was successful in 1 case out of 39 (2.56%). Genotyping by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and core genome multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST) identified the obtained isolate as Leptospira kirschneri, serogroup Pomona, serovar Mozdok. Further surveillance and molecular typing of Leptospira strains causing abortion in horses would be invaluable in understanding the prevalence and impact of leptospirosis on equine reproductive health in Europe. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects: 2nd Edition)
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11 pages, 764 KiB  
Article
The Presence of a Virulent Clone of Leptospira interrogans Serovar Canicola in Confirmed Cases of Asymptomatic Dog Carriers in Mexico
by Carlos Alfredo Carmona Gasca, Sergio Martínez González, Luz Olivia Castillo Sánchez, Ernesto Armando Rodríguez Reyes, María Fidelia Cárdenas Marrufo, Ignacio Vado Solís, Giselle Castañeda Miranda, Lilia Patricia López Huitrado and Alejandro de la Peña-Moctezuma
Microorganisms 2024, 12(4), 674; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12040674 - 28 Mar 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2259
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonotic disease that commonly affects cattle, pigs, horses, and dogs in many countries. Infection in dogs is usually subclinical, but acute cases of leptospirosis may occur along with systemic failure, which may become fatal. After recovery from an acute [...] Read more.
Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonotic disease that commonly affects cattle, pigs, horses, and dogs in many countries. Infection in dogs is usually subclinical, but acute cases of leptospirosis may occur along with systemic failure, which may become fatal. After recovery from an acute infection, dogs may become asymptomatic carriers and shed pathogenic leptospires through urine for long periods of time. Here, a study of ten different cases of leptospirosis is presented, showing the relevance of dogs as asymptomatic carriers of pathogenic Leptospira. The diagnosis was confirmed via isolation and further serological and genetic identification. Four Leptospira isolates (LOCaS28, 31, 34, and 46) were obtained from the kidneys and urine samples of 58 dogs destined for destruction (6.89%) at a Canine Control Center in Mexico City. No spirochetes were observed in the urine samples of those Leptospira-positive dogs examined under dark-field microscopy, and no clinical signs of disease were observed either. Six additional isolates were obtained: two came from asymptomatic carrier dogs (CEL60 and UADY22); another isolate came from an asymptomatic dog that was a pack companion of a clinically ill dog with fatal leptospirosis (AGFA24); and finally, three isolates were taken from dogs that died of leptospirosis (LOCaS59, Citlalli, and Nayar1). Nine out of the ten isolates were identified as being from the serogroup Canicola via cross-absorption MAT using reference strains and specific antisera, and their identity was genetically confirmed as Canicola ST34 via multi-locus sequencing typing (MLST). In contrast, the isolate Nayar1 was identified as serovar Copenhageni ST2. Interestingly, the asymptomatic dogs from which Leptospira isolates were recovered consistently showed high antibody titers in the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), revealing values of at least 1:3200 against serogroup Canicola and lower titer values against other serogroups. Isolates showed different virulence levels in the hamster model. Taken as a whole, all these findings confirmed that dogs may act as asymptomatic carriers of pathogenic leptospires and possibly spread them out to the environment, thus representing an active public health risk. The results also showed that the Canicola ST34 clone is the most prevalent Leptospira serovar in dogs in Mexico, and finally that the old-fashioned MAT is a good alternative for the detection of presumptive Leptospira asymptomatic carrier dogs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects: 2nd Edition)
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Review

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15 pages, 2994 KiB  
Review
Insights on the Pooled Prevalence and Global Distribution of Leptospirosis in Goats: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Roseane de Araújo Portela, Clécio Henrique Limeira, José Artur Brilhante Bezerra, Camila Marinelli Martins, Diego Figueiredo da Costa, Carolina de Sousa Américo Batista Santos, Clebert José Alves and Sérgio Santos de Azevedo
Microorganisms 2024, 12(12), 2391; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12122391 - 22 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1077
Abstract
Leptospira spp. infection in small ruminants is usually asymptomatic or presents nonspecific clinical signs and has an economic impact on goat farming and public health. The aim of this study was to carry out a systematic review with meta-analysis on the global seroprevalence [...] Read more.
Leptospira spp. infection in small ruminants is usually asymptomatic or presents nonspecific clinical signs and has an economic impact on goat farming and public health. The aim of this study was to carry out a systematic review with meta-analysis on the global seroprevalence and distribution of leptospirosis in goats. The methodology was based on the recommendations of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), and the review project was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO—ID: CRD42023405693). Overall, 79 articles were included in the study. The global prevalence of leptospirosis in goats was 18.6% (CI 95% = 15.08–22.71%), with no publication bias and high heterogeneity. The records originated from South America (n = 32), Asia (n = 26), Europe (n = 8), North America (n = 7), and Africa (n = 6), and seropositivities were 17%, 19%, 12%, 34%, and 22%, respectively. It is concluded that Leptospira spp. infection is widespread in goat herds, including regions with semi-arid and arid climates, and it is suggested that the prospects for controlling the disease should focus on avoiding environmental contamination and improving management measures and sanitary practices. This important information provides guidance for actions to protect against human contamination and to control animal leptospirosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Leptospira sp. Infection: Current Status, Insights and Future Prospects: 2nd Edition)
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