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Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area

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A special issue of Land (ISSN 2073-445X). This special issue belongs to the section "Land Systems and Global Change".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (12 January 2023) | Viewed by 24221

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Bindong Sun

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Guest Editor

Research Center for China Administrative Division, Institute of Eco-Chongming, School of Urban and Regional Science, East China Normal University, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
Interests: urban and regional spatial structure; urban and regional planning; urban and regional economics; transportation and land use

Dr. Tinglin Zhang

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Guest Editor

Research Center for China Administrative Division, Institute of Eco-Chongming, School of Urban and Regional Science, East China Normal University, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
Interests: urban land use; urban spatial structure; employment distribution; economic performance

Dr. Wan Li

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Guest Editor

1. Business School, Zhengzhou University, No. 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China
2. Research Center for China Administrative Division, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
Interests: regional spatial structure; urban size distribution; social equity

Dr. Chun Yin

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Guest Editor

Research Center for China Administrative Division, Institute of Eco-Chongming, School of Urban and Regional Science, East China Normal University, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
Interests: urban transportation and land use; build environment; active living; healthy city planning

Dr. Honghuan Gu

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Guest Editor

Research Center for China Administrative Division, Institute of Eco-Chongming, School of Urban and Regional Science, East China Normal University, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
Interests: urbanization and migration; urban social space; residential segregation; spatial justice

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Urban land is the main platform of human beings’ socio-economic activities. Land use patterns, particularly their spatial structure, are shaped by human socio-economic activities; however, they have multiple and profound impacts on urban development. With the development of urbanization and the arrival of urban society, approximately 70% of the global population are expected to live in cities by 2050, rising from about 55% today. Urban land will be one of the scarcest resources in the future, and hence planning and using urban land efficiently by improving its spatial pattern is a key issue to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals proposed by the United Nations.

The land use pattern and its spatial structure are not only traditional research topics in urban planning, geography, and land management, but are also receiving considerable attention in economics, sociology, political science and other disciplines, which is referred to as a spatial shift in research lenses. Paul Krugman has argued that space is the final frontier of economics. Scholars have found that the land use pattern and spatial structure play important roles in economic efficiency, social equity, ecological sustainability, citizens’ lifestyle, public services, etc. However, many problems in this topic remain unresolved. In particular, multidimensional impacts of urban land use patterns are obviously insufficient in both theory and practice; there is a lack of clear agreement on optimal land use patterns; the negative impacts of land use patterns are neglected in previous studies; and the influence mechanism of land use is still undetermined.

This Special Issue focuses on the general law of the impacts of land use pattern and spatial structure in metropolitan areas, as well as the mechanisms of land use formation, new data and new approaches for describing land use patterns. This Issue aims to provide new solid evidence for spatial planning and policy implication for more efficient land use in metropolitan areas, including but not limiting the following topics:

Positive and negative impacts of land use on economic development;
Impacts of land use on social development, including social equity, accessibility of facilities, active living, and citizens’ happiness;
Impacts of land use on ecological sustainability, including biodiversity, pollution, and carbon emissions;
Comprehensive evaluation of the multidimensional performance of land use patterns;
New data or new approaches for describing patterns and impacts of land use.

Note that land use in this Special Issue refers to economic and social activities (e.g., residential, industrial, architecture and recreational uses) that are practiced in a given metropolitan area. Other relevant terms are also acceptable, such as urban spatial structure, built environment, and urban form. Submitted manuscripts should have solid theoretical basis, clear causality, and valid conclusions.

Prof. Dr. Bindong Sun
Dr. Tinglin Zhang
Dr. Wan Li
Dr. Chun Yin
Dr. Honghuan Gu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Land is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

urban land use
urban spatial structure
built environment
economic and social activities
multi-dimensional impacts of land use
land use formation

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 1438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Housing Prices and the Characteristics of Nearby Green Space: Does Landscape Pattern Index Matter? Evidence from Metropolitan Area

by Yiyi Chen, Colin A. Jones, Neil A. Dunse, Enquan Li and Ye Liu

Land 2023, 12(2), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020496 - 16 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3390

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the association between housing prices and green space characteristics with a special focus on exploring the effects of the shape pattern index. The research was based on a hedonic price model across two main distance buffers from residential properties to urban green spaces. Green spaces were characterized by size and shape measured by a landscape shape index (LSI). This study was based on 16,222 housing transaction data obtained from the website of real estate agencies during December 2019 in the Metropolitan Area of Beijing. Linear regression and semi-log regression analysis were used to examine the associations between independent housing and neighborhood characteristic variables and housing prices. The results suggested that a one-unit increase in the natural logarithm of the landscape shape index (LSI) can increase housing prices by 4% (5543 CNY

\approx

826 USD). Such marginal effects were more pronounced for residences located close to urban green spaces and tended to decay as the distance from residences to green spaces increased. Additional analysis captured the marginal effects of the natural logarithm of the landscape shape index (LSI > 1.3) on achieving the maximum monetary evaluation of the property. The findings of this study suggest that the effects of specific green space characteristics on housing prices should be taken into account in landscape and urban design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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33 pages, 7301 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimal Regional Allocation of Future Population and Employment under Urban Boundary and Density Constraints: A Spatial Interaction Modeling Approach

by David Jung-Hwi Lee and Jean-Michel Guldmann

Land 2023, 12(2), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020433 - 07 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1464

Abstract

This paper develops an optimization modeling framework to select strategies of land development and population and employment densities for a growing metropolitan area. The modeling core involves a non-linear commuting model, which accounts for spatial structure variables and is empirically estimated by Tobit regression. This commuting model is then embedded into a non-linear optimization model that allocates increments in the population and employment (activities) to available land, while minimizing the total future commuting costs under various combinations of land expansion boundaries and population and employment densities. The resulting minimum cost surface is approximated via polynomial regression and combined with land development and congestion cost functions to derive the overall optimal strategy. These models are estimated and calibrated with data from the Census Transportation Planning Package (CTPP) and Auditor’s property database, and are applied to the Fredericksburg metropolitan area, Virginia. The results demonstrate that the optimal development densities are very sensitive to the congestion cost function. A land development strategy that allows for limited sprawl might be a smart policy to reduce both regional vehicle mile travel (VMT) and related congestion and pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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14 pages, 663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Urban Agglomeration Discourage Entrepreneurship in China? Micro-Empirical Evidence from China

by Wan Li, Bindong Sun, Shuaishuai Han and Xiaoxi Jin

Land 2023, 12(1), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12010145 - 01 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1468

Abstract

As the net effect of agglomeration on entrepreneurship depends on the trade-off between positive and negative effects, urban agglomeration can either promote or discourage entrepreneurial activity in theory. However, there is an unexpected shortage of empirical confirmations on this potential cause-and-effect relationship. Our study strives to fill this empirical gap by providing credible evidence whether agglomeration, measured by the urban density or population, increases the probability of individuals being self-employed. Based on the China Labor-Force Dynamic Survey of 2012, 2014, and 2016, we find that big cities fail to facilitate individuals to start or run their own businesses. Further analyses illustrate that the entrepreneurs in large cities can be easily tempted by a wider range of salaried opportunities and are generally exposed to high fixed costs and intense competition. In contrast, entrepreneurship in large cities is of high reward. These results serve as direct evidence of the co-existence of agglomeration diseconomies and economies. This also suggests the direction of government policy in large cities, which is to alleviate, as much as possible, the negative impact on entrepreneurs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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18 pages, 4274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation, Recognition and Implications of Urban–Rural Integration Development: A Township-Level Analysis of Hanchuan City in Wuhan Metropolitan Area

by Shiwei Lu, Yaping Huang, Xiaoqing Wu and Yichen Ding

Land 2023, 12(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12010014 - 21 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1598

Abstract

China has achieved success in implementing the rural revitalization strategy and promoting the development of new urbanization. However, there are still many problems in the research and implementation on urban–rural integration development, such as insufficient research at the township level, unclear recognition of development patterns, and disconnection from land-use planning. Therefore, taking Hanchuan city in the Wuhan metropolitan area as a case study, this research constructs a comprehensive evaluation system of urban–rural integration development based on both on the current and potential level of development, and identifies the spatial characteristics and patterns in the study area. This study found that: (1) The comprehensive evaluation result of urban–rural integration development in Hanchuan City shows that a high level of development units are mainly distributed in the northeast and southwest, and gradually decreases from the northeast and southwest, indicating that towns in the central area are relatively weakly driven by the radiation of the surrounding growth poles. (2) Xiannvshan Street, Makou Town, Chenhu Town, and Xinyan Town with the highest comprehensive evaluation values were selected as the centers of urban–rural integration development in four directions. (3) Four typical patterns of urban–rural integration development, which are town gathering, agro-tourism interaction, industry-trade driven, and agricultural service, are derived by the gravity model and classification assignment method according to their respective centers. (4) According to the urban–rural integration development patterns, land-use strategies such as centralization for promoting linkage level of towns, differentiation for arranging various resources and infrastructures, and demonstration for optimization of experience to the whole area are proposed in a targeted manner. This study has important implications for the preparation and implementation of urban–rural integration development and provides effective planning guidance for promoting social equity and accessibility of facilities in the metropolitan area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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19 pages, 2351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment and Decomposition of Regional Land Use Efficiency of the Service Sector in China

by Mingzhi Zhang, Hongyu Liu, Yangyue Su, Xiangyu Zhou, Zhaocheng Li and Chao Chen

Land 2022, 11(11), 1911; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11111911 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1308

Abstract

High land use efficiency is the key to improving total factor productivity, and also an important force behind achieving sustained economic growth. Existing studies have mainly focused on the land use efficiency of the industry sector. Yet, the issue of land use efficiency of the service sector (SLUE) has been largely overlooked. This study examines regional differences and efficiency decomposition by using a slack based model (SBM) of undesirable output, and the Malmquist productivity index (MPI) under a data envelopment analysis framework. The results reveal that: (1) In China, the land use efficiency of the service sector is unbalanced, showing an inverted growth law of “low in developed areas and high in backward areas”. (2) The land use efficiency of the service sector can be decomposed into technical progress, pure technical efficiency, and scale efficiency. From the decomposition results, the growth rate of pure technical efficiency presents a trend of “low in the east and high in the west”; the scale efficiency also falls into the situation of weak group growth. Technological progress has maintained steady improvement. (3) The coordinated improvement of land use efficiency of the service sector needs to focus on resolving the “beggar-thy-neighbor” issue caused by existing large regional differences. In this article, the puzzle of land use efficiency differences in the service industry is well solved, and thus provides valuable enlightenment for the benign growth of service industries in countries and regions around the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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18 pages, 15180 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Patterns Exploration and Impacts Modelling of Carbon Emissions: Evidence from Three Stages of Metropolitan Areas in the YREB, China

by Yichen Ding, Yaping Huang, Lairong Xie, Shiwei Lu, Leizhou Zhu, Chunguang Hu and Yidan Chen

Land 2022, 11(10), 1835; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101835 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1548

Abstract

Metropolitan areas in China are not only the core spatial carriers of urbanization development but also the main generators of land use carbon emission (LUCE). However, existing research lacks comparative studies on the differential patterns and impact factors of LUCE in different stages of metropolitan areas. Therefore, this paper deeply analyzes the spatial characteristics of LUCE and the coupling coordination degree (CCD) of the economy contributive coefficient (ECC) and ecological support coefficient (ESC) in three different stages of metropolitan areas in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB), China. Moreover, quantitative modelling of the impact factors of LUCE in these different stages of metropolitan areas is furtherly revealed. Results show that: (1) The more mature stage of the metropolitan area, the higher the amount of LUCE, and the more districts or counties with high carbon emissions levels are clustered. (2) At the metropolitan area scale, the more mature the metropolitan area is and the lower the CCD between ECC and ESC is, while at the finer scale, more developed counties have lower CCD. (3) Resident population, per capita GDP, and urbanization rate have good explanatory effects on carbon emissions in these three metropolitan areas; however, except for the urbanization rate, which has a negative effect on LUCE in Nanchang metropolitan area (NMA), the other two factors have positive effects on LUCE in these three metropolitan areas. This study has important implications for different stages of metropolitan areas to formulate targeted LUCE reduction policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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15 pages, 2013 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Land Use Pattern Affects Microplastic Concentrations in Stormwater Drains in Urban Catchments in Perth, Western Australia

by Cassandra Bond, Hua Li and Andrew W. Rate

Land 2022, 11(10), 1815; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101815 - 17 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2828

Abstract

Stormwater drains act as important vectors for microplastics, enabling the transportation of microplastic polymers from terrestrial systems where they are produced and consumed to aquatic and marine ecosystems. In this study, microplastic concentrations and their size fractions were measured in six stormwater catchments in the Perth and Peel region of Western Australia. Stormwater drains with contrasting land uses and catchment characteristics were selected and two sites along each drain were sampled. Water samples were filtered in situ with a purpose-built fractionation device. Catchment boundaries and contributing drainage areas were derived from a hydrologically enforced digital elevation model. Microplastic concentrations within the sites varied from 8.8 to 25.1 microplastics/L (mean 14.2 microplastics/L). Fibrous microplastics were the most common morphology, followed by fragments. Polymer types identified using Raman spectroscopy included polypropylene (64.6% of samples), polyethylene (64.7%), polytetrafluoroethylene (5.9%) and polyvinylidene fluoride (5.9%). There was no statistically significant variation in microplastic concentrations across or within stormwater catchments. A linear mixed-effect model showed that several components of the land use pattern: catchment area, catchment population, and the proportion of industrial land, natural land and public open space, were positively related to microplastic concentrations. The proportion of residential land was negatively related to microplastic concentrations. The lack of significant variation in microplastic concentration observed both across and within the catchments points to their ubiquitous presence in stormwater systems in the region. This study is the first to examine microplastic contamination in the water of stormwater drainage systems in Perth, Western Australia. These stormwater systems contain considerable concentrations of microplastics, confirming their importance as transport mechanisms for plastics into aquatic and marine ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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22 pages, 3199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Role of Transit Ridership as a Proxy for Regional Centrality in Moderating the Relationship between the 3Ds and Street-Level Pedestrian Volume: Evidence from Seoul, Korea

by Seung-Nam Kim, Juwon Chung and Junseung Lee

Land 2022, 11(10), 1749; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101749 - 09 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1323

Abstract

The preference for walking and the resulting pedestrian activities have been considered key success factors for streets, neighborhoods, and cities alike. Although micro- and meso-scale built environment factors that encourage walking have been investigated, the role of macroscopic factors such as regional centrality in explaining street-level pedestrian volume is often neglected. Against this backdrop, this study examines the relationship between built environments and street-level pedestrian volume using Smart Card and pedestrian volume survey data from Seoul after controlling for transport ridership as a proxy for regional centrality. As a preliminary study, we analyzed 36 regression models applying different sets of transit ridership variables and found that the combination of bus ridership within 400 m and subway ridership within 300 m best explained the variation in pedestrian volume on a street. Then, the effects of the 3D variables (density, diversity, and design) on pedestrian volume were compared before and after controlling for ridership within this spatial range. The results demonstrated that, after taking transit ridership into account, the influence of built environment variables is generally reduced, and the decrease is more pronounced among walkshed-level 3D variables than street-level variables. Particularly, while the effect of “design” (street connectivity) on pedestrian volume appeared to be negatively significant in the constrained model, it was found to be insignificant in the unconstrained model which controlled for transit ridership. This suggests that the degree of street connectivity is influenced by regional centrality, and accordingly, the coefficient of the “design” variable in our constrained model might be biased. Thus, to accurately understand the effect of the meso-scale 3D variables on pedestrian volume, both micro- and macro-scale built environmental factors should be controlled. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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23 pages, 896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics between Direct Industrial Real Estate and the Macroeconomy: An Empirical Study of Hong Kong

by Daniel Lo, Yung Yau, Michael McCord and Martin Haran

Land 2022, 11(10), 1675; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101675 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1657

Abstract

Pricing of direct industrial real estate (DIRE) has long been under-researched due to the paucity of analysable data. Compared to other types of real estate, DIRE has often been regarded as more inefficient because of information asymmetry amongst market players stemming from a lack of market transparency. Therefore, pricing of DIRE usually does not follow a random walk and should be more predictable than other types of real estate. Along this line of reasoning, this study empirically investigates the causal relationships between the price-to-rent ratio of DIRE and macroeconomic attributes using cointegration and causality techniques. More specifically, we employ data on the market of Hong Kong to investigate the lead-lag relationships between the price-to-rent ratio of DIRE and a wide spectrum of macroeconomic and financial indicators, including inflation, money supply, national income, exchange rates, performance of housing market and other economic indicators specific to the industrial sector. The results of our statistical tests reveal significant evidence that DIRE is generally moving in syncs with other segments of the economy over time in terms of long-term cointegration. Further, DIRE tends to lag behind the overall macroeconomy in terms of Granger causation with the price-to-rent ratio exhibiting varying lengths of time lag with the macroeconomic determinants. The findings of the study carry important implications for informing property valuation practices and industrial land policy, particularly in designing urban revitalization programmes aimed at optimising industrial land use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

19 pages, 6908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plus-InVEST Study of the Chengdu-Chongqing Urban Agglomeration’s Land-Use Change and Carbon Storage

by Chaoyue Wang, Tingzhen Li, Xianhua Guo, Lilin Xia, Chendong Lu and Chunbo Wang

Land 2022, 11(10), 1617; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101617 - 21 Sep 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2306

Abstract

Based on China’s “carbon neutrality” strategy, this study explores the relationship between land-use/cover change and temporal and spatial changes of ecosystem carbon storage in urban agglomerations. Using the Plus-InVEST model, the projected spatial patterns of land use in the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration in 2030 under natural development and ecological protection scenarios were simulated and predicted, and the characteristics of carbon storage, together with its spatio-temporal dynamics, were evaluated under two scenarios. Results show that: (1) From 2000 to 2020, forests, water areas, construction areas, and unused land continued to increase, while the area of cropland and grassland decreased continuously. During the last 20 years, carbon storage in urban agglomeration showed an increasing trend, with an overall increase of 24.490 × 10⁶ t. (2) Compared with the natural development scenario, forest land, grassland, and water area in 2030 under the ecological protection scenario exhibits a substantial change; the area of construction land is limited; and an ecological spatial effect is reflected. (3) Compared to 2020, carbon storage under natural development and ecological protection scenarios decreased by 50.001 × 10⁶ t and 49.753 × 10⁶ t in 2030, respectively. The stability of carbon storage under the ecological conservation scenario was significantly higher than that under the natural development scenario. Therefore, under the ecological protection scenario, as a result of the coordinated land use of Chengdu-Chongqing, the functions of various regions can be coordinated and carbon storage losses can be mitigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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19 pages, 2668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Polycentricity on Economic Performance and Its Dependence on City Size: The Case of China

by Bindong Sun, Tinglin Zhang, Wan Li and Yan Song

Land 2022, 11(9), 1546; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11091546 - 12 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1966

Abstract

Polycentric planning strategies have often failed to achieve the expected effects. The ensuing uncertainty associated with the desirability of polycentric strategies is also reflected in the early literature which offers no clear conclusion about whether the polycentricity affects economic performance and how. This paper aims at offering a clear conclusion about it, especially its dependence on city size. Against this backdrop, we conceptualize polycentricity as a process of reclustering after decentralization to reevaluate its impact on performance. To this end, we use the city proper level Chinese Economic Census (2004, 2008, and 2013) and apply a fixed-effects panel model, the results of which show that the dependence of the urban economy on spatial structure is contingent on city size. More specifically, both decentralization and clustering (and therefore the polycentric structure) facilitate economic performance only when cities reach a certain size. We use our findings as the basis for outlining an emergent research agenda for urban polycentricity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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15 pages, 3888 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Employment Spatial Structure Based on Mobile Phone Signaling Data: The Case of Shenzhen, China

by Yani Lai, Zhen Lv, Chunmei Chen and Quan Liu

Land 2022, 11(7), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/land11070983 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1995

Abstract

Debate on the shift from a monocentric to polycentric urban structure has been extensive. Polycentricity generally refers to the co-existence of several centers in a city. Existing studies regarding China have mainly focused on the morphological characteristics of urban centers, but few recent studies have focused on functional dimensions of urban centers. Emerging big data sources provide new opportunities to explore the morphological and functional perspectives of urban spatial structure. This study uses mobile phone signaling data and develops a new methodology to measure urban centers’ functional centrality. The study area focuses on Shenzhen City, which has rapidly transformed from a village into a metropolitan city in the past few decades. As the first economic special zone in China, Shenzhen has adopted a polycentric urban plan since the beginning of the urbanization process. This study explores the spatial employment structure of the city from the morphological and function dimensions. Based on the findings, this study discusses the role of urban planning in forming an urban spatial structure and provides implications for future planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Land Use Pattern in Metropolitan Area)

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