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A special issue of Land (ISSN 2073-445X). This special issue belongs to the section "Land Planning and Landscape Architecture".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2026) | Viewed by 10220

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Editors

Prof. Dr. Chris Zevenbergen

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Guest Editor

1. Water Engineering Department, IHE Delft, 2611 AX Delf, The Netherlands
2. Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, TU Delft, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
Interests: decision support tool development in planning with practical application in flood management
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Prof. Dr. Liang Li

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Guest Editor

School of National Park, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: national parks and protected areas; nature conservation and management; green infrastructure; ecological planning and design; community building and participatory development
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Liyuan Qian

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Guest Editor

Department of Landscape Architecture, School of Architecture, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China
Interests: nature reserves and national park management; alpine ecosystem evolution; disaster monitoring

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over the past century, the global system of national parks and protected areas has made significant progress and, as of 2024, more than 260,000 protected areas have been established worldwide, covering approximately 17% of the Earth’s terrestrial surface. These areas play a critical role in conserving biodiversity, maintaining water resources, regulating the climate, and preserving cultural heritage. International frameworks such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Global Biodiversity Framework have continually driven countries to expand and strengthen their protected area networks. In 2020, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) released the Guidelines for Conserving Connectivity through Ecological Networks and Corridors, marking a pivotal moment in formally recognizing ecological connectivity within international legal and policy systems. This recognition provides essential mechanisms for countries to fulfill their conservation obligations more effectively. However, protected area systems continue to face mounting challenges. Rapid urbanization and land use changes have led to increased habitat fragmentation; climate change has intensified ecological vulnerability; and, in many regions, weak management capacity and insufficient community engagement remain major obstacles. Meanwhile, global biodiversity loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. Addressing these challenges requires a fundamental shift—from isolated conservation efforts toward an integrated, network-based approach to ecosystem governance. Looking ahead, building efficient, resilient, and inclusive systems of national parks and protected areas will be essential to achieving the global goal of “living in harmony with nature.” This calls for stronger ecological networks, enhanced legal and institutional frameworks, and the equitable participation of local communities in conservation planning and decision-making.

This Special Issue aims to explore scientific conservation strategies for national parks and protected area systems from a global perspective. It seeks to draw on the experiences and best practices of leading countries in developing ecological networks and corridors, with particular attention to the challenges faced by developing countries under the dual pressures of climate change and biodiversity loss. By systematically analyzing the latest theories, governance practices, and innovative mechanisms from around the world, this Special Issue aspires to offer actionable insights and policy recommendations for building and managing effective protected area systems across different development contexts. Ultimately, it contributes to the global vision of achieving harmony between humans and nature.

This Special Issue will welcome manuscripts that link the following themes:

National park management;
Natural protected area system construction;
Natural protected areas under climate threat;
The land management of natural protected areas.

We look forward to receiving your original research articles and reviews.

Prof. Dr. Chris Zevenbergen
Prof. Dr. Liang Li
Dr. Liyuan Qian
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Land is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

national park management
natural protected area system construction
ecological connectivity
biodiversity conservation
climate change
ecosystem governance
urban threats
tourism control
human–environment interation
restoration

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

43 pages, 11745 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multidimensional Assessment of Ecological Restoration Effectiveness in Plateau Urban Protected Areas: Evidence from Chokpori Mountain Park, Lhasa, China

by Redong Zhang, Lele Yuan, Qingtao Zhu, Wenjing Sun and Suolang Baimu

Land 2026, 15(6), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15061062 - 16 Jun 2026

Viewed by 428

Abstract

In the context of intensifying global climate change, high-altitude mountain ecosystems play a critical role in climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, and the advancement of sustainable human development. Plateau regions, such as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, are particularly sensitive and responsive to global climatic fluctuations and function as essential ecological barriers supporting development across Asia. These areas occupy a strategic position within Asia’s ecological security framework and the broader international community, influencing not only regional ecological stability and social cohesion but also sustainable development pathways. However, owing to their fragile ecosystem structures, limited regenerative capacity, and the ongoing expansion of urbanisation and human activities, these regions frequently suffer from habitat fragmentation and degradation of ecological functions. This issue is especially acute in natural protected areas adjacent to plateau cities. Consequently, there is an urgent need for quantitative assessments of ecological restoration effectiveness within natural protected areas, alongside investigations into development approaches that underpin long-term regional stability and sustainability. Focusing on Chokpori Mountain—the “urban green heart” of Lhasa, a principal city on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau—this study develops a three-dimensional assessment framework encompassing ecological, economic, and social dimensions. By integrating the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model, remote sensing inversion techniques, field monitoring, and questionnaire surveys, the research systematically evaluates the effectiveness of ecological restoration and proposes insights for sustainable governance. The findings indicate that ecological restoration elicited positive ecological responses, evidenced by a 69.2% increase in soil retention post-renovation, an increase in vegetation coverage, and modeled total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) export loads demonstrating enhanced nutrient retention potential and improved water purification potential; (2) economic stimulation was evident, as demonstrated by an increase in average weekend daily visitor numbers from 876 to 1567 and a 24.2% rise in average monthly revenue of shops within a 1 km radius; and (3) social well-being improved, with ecological satisfaction reaching 89.2% and recognition of cultural communication attaining 67.3%. An integrated analysis indicates a synergistic enhancement of ecological environmental quality, regional vitality, and public perception. Accordingly, the outcomes of this study provide both theoretical insights and practical guidance for the ecological restoration and sustainable management of urban protected areas in high-altitude plateau regions worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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21 pages, 1027 KB

Open AccessArticle

Whose National Park? The Dilemma of Institutional Construction in Shangri-La Potatso National Park from a Spatial Justice Perspective

by Jian Peng, Yao Yang and Xueling Tan

Land 2026, 15(6), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15061036 - 11 Jun 2026

Viewed by 369

Abstract

This study integrates spatial justice theory with the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework to construct a new analytical model: “Institutional Rules–Spatial Justice Issues–Spatial Injustice Perception–Institutional Feedback.” Using Shangri-La Potatso National Park as a case study, our deductive–inductive approach reveals the practical dilemmas and institutional challenges in the development of China’s national park system. The findings indicate that (1) national park reforms have not restructured entrenched power relations, leading to ineffective governance and deficiencies across multiple institutional rules; (2) these rule deficiencies shape an action arena where multiple actors interact within nested power networks, generating four interrelated spatial justice issues—power deviance, resource deprivation, cultural erosion, and conflict reproduction; (3) actors’ perceptions of spatial injustice, assessed through procedural, distributive, recognitional, and restorative justice lenses, produce institutional feedback that often perpetuates rather than resolves systemic inequities. Theoretically, this study reveals that while spatial justice issues manifest differently in ecological conservation versus urban development contexts, both are driven by institutional exclusion constructed through a “capital–power–technology” alliance. In practical terms, an inclusive governance system centered on collaborative decision-making, equitable resource allocation, cultural recognition, and integrated conflict resolution is proposed to advance spatial justice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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21 pages, 49063 KB

Open AccessArticle

Land-Use Governance of Borderland Protected Areas Under Refugee Expansion and Climate Threats: Evidence from Teknaf, Bangladesh

by Junling Liu, Chris Zevenbergen, Jingyi Lu, Qi Qi, William Veerbeek, Sami W. Chowdhury and Liyuan Qian

Land 2026, 15(6), 1024; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15061024 - 10 Jun 2026

Viewed by 400

Abstract

In biodiversity-rich borderlands, some humanitarian settlements are rapidly expanding. This creates a profound conflict: refugees need a place to live, and ecosystems need protection. However, how settlement growth spatially affects the ecology surrounding protected areas remains understudied. This study takes as an example the city of Teknaf in Bangladesh, one of the world’s largest refugee gathering areas, to explore how settlement expansion changes the ecological structure and function of protected area boundaries, with a focus on two questions: Are there critical spatial thresholds? What is the role of climate feedback mechanisms? We build an analysis framework that integrates several types of data: multitemporal remote sensing images, land-use changes, ecological indicators (NDVI, LST, HQ), landscape pattern indices, gradient analysis, and 2036 simulations based on the business-as-usual scenario. Through this framework, we identify the ecological threshold at the junction of settlements and forests within the Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary. The expansion of settlements has turned the landscape, which was originally dominated by vegetation, into fragmented hard patches. At the same time, the habitat is severely degraded, and heat stress intensifies. Notably, a critical transition zone emerges at approximately 300–500 m from the protected area boundary, where landscape fragmentation intensifies, habitat quality declines, and heat stress reaches its peak, highlighting a spatial hotspot of ecological vulnerability. If there are no intervention measures, future scenario simulations show that the continued expansion of settlements will only isolate protected areas and accelerate ecological degradation. On the basis of gradient analysis for spatial diagnosis, we propose a zoning management framework and regeneration landscape strategy with the direct goal of coordinating ecological protection and humanitarian needs in crisis-prone border areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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18 pages, 3116 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conservation Effectiveness and Spatial Drivers of Qianjiangyuan National Park: Causal Evidence from a Quasi-Experimental Framework

by Chuqi Wang, Yinglin Wang, Jiwen Lu and Liang Li

Land 2026, 15(5), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050863 - 17 May 2026

Viewed by 467

Abstract

National parks are widely recognized as a key spatial conservation strategy for simultaneously safeguarding biodiversity and sustaining ecosystem services, yet comprehensive and causally robust evaluation frameworks are still needed to accurately assess their effectiveness and support evidence-based management. This study evaluates the conservation effectiveness of Qianjiangyuan National Park (QJYNP) from 2015 to 2024 using a multidimensional index, a PSM-DID quasi-experimental framework, and interpretable machine learning. The results show that the direct policy effect was significantly positive during 2015–2020, but shifted to a negative cumulative effect by 2024. The spillover effect in the buffer zone also turned significantly negative, potentially associated with tourism-related development shifting outward. In addition, slope, temperature, and population density were identified as key drivers of EEI heterogeneity with nonlinear threshold effects, while road-related impacts intensified over time. These findings indicate that quasi-experimental approaches better capture phased policy effects than conventional descriptive comparisons, and suggest that simple boundary controls are insufficient; instead, buffer zones should be incorporated into integrated management frameworks to mitigate external development pressures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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27 pages, 3736 KB

Open AccessArticle

Strategic Framework to Reinforce the Application for the UNESCO Global Geopark Label: The Case of Chefchaouen Geopark (NW Morocco)

by Ali Aoulad-Sidi-Mhend, Youssef Bennady and Hamida Lahjouji

Land 2026, 15(4), 575; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15040575 - 31 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1032

Abstract

The aspiring United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Global Geopark of Chefchaouen includes part of the Talassemtane National Park (TNP), classified by UNESCO as an exceptional natural heritage site within the Intercontinental Mediterranean Biosphere Reserve (RBIM). The other section corresponds to the Ghomara Coast (GC), characterized by an outstanding succession of metamorphic rocks. This study identifies and highlights the most significant sites of geological interest (geosites and geodiversity sites) in the territory. Forty-two sites are proposed as geological heritage sites, thirty of which are organized into four accessible georoutes (Oued Laou Valley, Ghomara Coast, Talambote–Akchour, and Chaouen–Ametrasse), while the other twelve are located along trails and forest tracks inside or near the TNP. These sites cover a wide range of geological typologies, including structural geology, stratigraphy–sedimentology, paleontology, geomaterials, petrology, geomorphology, and hydrogeology. To classify and rank the sites objectively, a numerical methodology based on the recent literature was applied. Scientific value (SV), Potential Educational Use (PEU), and Potential Touristic Use (PTU) were quantified using multiple criteria, facilitating route selection according to user needs. Degradation Risk (DR) was also measured, providing managers with essential guidance for an appropriate geoconservation plan. Actions consistent with UNESCO Global Geoparks Network criteria are proposed to improve conservation, support education, and promote sustainable tourism, thereby enhancing economic activity in the region. The initiative aims to promote the region’s exceptional geological, cultural, and natural heritage. The Chefchaouen Geopark was designated a deferred candidate during the UNESCO Global Geoparks Council meeting of 8–9 September 2024. According to Section 5.5 of its guidelines, the Council may defer an application for up to two years to allow improvements without requiring a second field evaluation. To consolidate the Chefchaouen candidacy, we developed a strategy to strengthen compliance with UNESCO requirements, reduce the risk of final rejection, and maintain the territory’s credibility with international networks and partners. This work presents an operational, costed, and scheduled roadmap enabling stakeholders at all levels to converge toward a complete and coherent application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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24 pages, 8862 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Ecological Vulnerability and Multi-Strategic Approaches for Enhancing Ecological Efficiency: Case Study of Upper and Middle Reaches of the Yellow River Basin

by Chenyang Sun, Kaixi Liu, Yuqian Wang, Yunzheng Wang, Yuqi Li and Siyuan Liu

Land 2026, 15(4), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15040560 - 29 Mar 2026

Viewed by 650

Abstract

The watershed boundaries in arid and semi-arid regions are critical zones where ecological vulnerability and socio-economic development are in severe conflict. The upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River basin are a typical example of this dilemma. Intensive land use and human developmental interventions in this region have severely disrupted the integrity and balance of the ecosystem. While spatially designated, networked conservation areas can effectively promote the integrity and balance of regional ecosystems, these areas may fail to capture dynamic changes in vulnerability. This study develops a “functional diagnosis-structural diagnosis-integrated optimization” framework. It integrates various scenarios to diagnose vulnerability under uncertainty and identifies bottlenecks in ecological networks. For functional diagnosis, the coupling of the sensitivity–resilience–pressure (SRP) model and the Ordered Weighted Averaging (OWA) algorithm accurately locates vulnerable areas within the regional ecosystem. In terms of structural diagnosis, the Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA), Minimum Cumulative Resistance model (MCR), and Circuit Theory are integrated to identify structural bottlenecks. The main findings of this study are as follows: (1) Functional Diagnosis: The coupling of SRP and OWA reveals the non-linear vulnerability responses to policy preferences and identifies areas that consistently exhibit functional vulnerability across different scenarios. (2) Structural Diagnosis: The circuit theory combined with MSPA and MCR analysis identifies 72 ecological pinch points. These bottlenecks represent the weakest structural nodes crucial for maintaining regional ecological robustness. (3) Coupled Delineation and Differentiated Restoration Strategies: High vulnerability areas identified by SRP and consistently vulnerable areas identified by OWA are combined to delineate four distinct ecological restoration units: Alpine Fragile Matrix Unit, Loess Hilly Soil Conservation Unit, Anthropogenic Pressure Pinch Point Unit, Key Structural Stepping Stone Unit. Differentiated ecological restoration strategies are proposed based on the varying sensitivity, resilience, and pressure characteristics of these units. The “functional-structural” coupled ecological vulnerability evaluation framework can precisely identify vulnerable areas. The delineated restoration units and their corresponding restoration strategies provide reference and supplementation for the protected areas system, offering transferable tools for enhancing regional ecological efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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34 pages, 6343 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity and Influencing Factor of Trade-Offs and Synergies Among Land-Use Multifunctions in the Long March National Cultural Park, China

by Xiaoli Li and Shuang Du

Land 2026, 15(4), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15040551 - 27 Mar 2026

Viewed by 545

Abstract

Spatiotemporal heterogeneity of land-use multifunction (LUMF) is crucial for the preservation and management of large-scale national cultural parks in alleviating potential human-land conflicts. Using 28 multidimensional indicators across economic, social, and environmental dimensions, this study established an LUMF index system for the Long March National Cultural Park of China (CLMNCP). LUMF values for 77 prefecture-level cities were quantified from 2008 to 2023, and their spatiotemporal heterogeneity was examined using a spatial autocorrelation model. Subsequently, the Optimal Parameters-based GeoDetector (OPGD) model was applied to identify key driving factors. The main findings are as follows: (1) From 2008 to 2023, the total, economic (EF), social (SF), and environmental (EnF) functions in the CLMNCP exhibited a consistent upward trend. (2) Significant spatial heterogeneity characterized the trade-offs and synergies among these functions. The EF-EnF interaction displayed a concave synergistic relationship, while the EF-SF and SF-EnF interactions showed convex, fluctuating patterns during their transitions between trade-off and synergy. (3) The primary drivers varied across function pairs. The EF-SF synergy was predominantly influenced by agricultural production, resource supply, and cultural service factors. The EF-EnF interaction was mainly shaped by natural conditions and environmental improvement factors. In contrast, the SF-EnF interaction was primarily driven by economic development, cultural services, and resource supply. These findings support functional zoning and targeted management of large-scale national cultural park to balance development and conservation while reducing human-land conflicts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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35 pages, 10315 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Name It and Its Yours: Toponym Disputes Between Native and Settler Colonials in North America

by Richard Stoffle, Kathleen Van Vlack, Simon Larsson, Yoko Kugo, Steve Baumann and Alex Wolfson

Land 2026, 15(2), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020255 - 2 Feb 2026

Viewed by 2100

Abstract

Humans tend to mark their presence and thus their lands by naming charismatic places such as mountains, canyons, rivers, and lakes. Toponyms is the term for marking places with names. In doing so, cultural groups claim the lands and the recognition of their presence through names in their language and behaviors reflecting their culture. When other cultures occupy these lands, they similarly mark them with their own place names, thus replacing earlier names and evidence of occupation. A conflict of toponyms occurs when one cultural group uses their power to maintain a superior attachment to the land. This chapter uses six toponym ethnographic studies to understand the origins of debates between Native American and settler colonial peoples in North American. Research findings from these studies define both the importance of toponyms to cultural groups and possible resolution of heritage conflicts. All studies have been reviewed and approved for public use for place interpretations, visitor education, and culturally appropriate management by funding agencies and participating Native American tribes and Pueblos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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26 pages, 638 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Understanding the (In)Governability of Environmental Protected Areas: The Case of Greece

by Dimitra Syrou, Iosif Botetzagias and Ioli Christopoulou

Land 2026, 15(1), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010100 - 4 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1871

Abstract

Protected areas (PAs) remain central to global conservation policy, yet their performance depends as much on governance quality as on ecological design. This paper examines the (in)governability of Greece’s protected area system by assessing how formal institutions align with contextual realities. A systematic review of forty-three peer-reviewed studies (1999–2020) is combined with analysis of recent governance-assessment tools to evaluate institutional fit, legitimacy, and equity. Frameworks such as the Site-level Assessment of Governance and Equity (SAGE) and the IUCN (2024) guidelines on Advancing Equitable Governance in area-based conservation provide practical metrics for participation, accountability, and fairness, offering a timely benchmark for the Greek case. The review shows that, despite substantial EU-driven legal reforms, Greece’s PA system continues to exhibit governance misfit, weak institutional integration, and persistent implementation gaps. Institutional misfit is understood here as a misalignment between formal governance arrangements and the social, ecological, and administrative contexts they are intended to regulate. Governability remains constrained by centralization, limited stakeholder participation, and fragile accountability mechanisms. By integrating classical theories of institutional fit and interactive governance with contemporary equity-based approaches, the study identifies the structural and contextual barriers that hinder effective and just conservation. The findings highlight the need for more legitimate, participatory, and context-sensitive governance arrangements to ensure that protected areas in Greece deliver both ecological and social outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

16 pages, 1140 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tianchuang in National Parks of China: Its Concept, Causes, and Consequences

by Rong Tao, Tianjiao Li and Xujiao Zhang

Land 2025, 14(11), 2275; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112275 - 17 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1187

Abstract

In global national parks, many land parcels, despite being inside park boundaries, have incompatible land uses with their surroundings and are normally not integrated into the park’s unified management. These non-contiguous management spaces present common and persistent spatial management challenges. In China, such spaces are called Tianchuang, a relatively new phenomenon that is underexplored in current research. Therefore, this study explores Tianchuang’s concept, causes, and consequences through policy and literature, and it compares Tianchuang with international cases to situate China’s experience in a global perspective. The findings are as follows. Firstly, originating from functional conflicts and historical legacies, Tianchuang are land parcels that retain their original usage, not ecologically coherent with the overall protected area and temporarily not incorporated into unified management. Secondly, there are three typical approaches to deal with land parcels that have incompatible land uses with their surroundings, including withdrawal, boundary adjustment, and Tianchuang. Compared with the other two approaches, Tianchuang serves as a way to balance ecological protection and local development, and as a transitional method for potential integration into unified management. Thirdly, by alleviating short-term institutional and social conflicts, Tianchuang creates challenges for ecosystem integrity and connectivity, management responsibilities, and community trust. Finally, through cross-national comparisons with U.S. inholdings, Australian indigenous co-management, and Nigerian GGNP enclaves, the uniqueness of Tianchuang in China is highlighted as a proactive policy design under centralized governance that balances efficiency and flexibility, with potential for unified management in the future. This study provides theoretical support for China’s national park Tianchuang governance and contributes Chinese insights in terms of non-contiguous management spaces in national parks for global protected area governance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue National Parks and Natural Protected Area Systems)

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