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Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations
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Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations

A special issue of Journal of Risk and Financial Management (ISSN 1911-8074). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Economics and Finance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2022) | Viewed by 69202

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Hannes Winner

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Guest Editor
Department of Economics, University of Salzburg, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria
Interests: public economics; public health; sports economics; applied econometrics
Dr. Michael Barth

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Guest Editor
Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
Interests: sports economics; talent development in sports; epidemiology of alpine sports; machine learning
Prof. Dr. Martin Schnitzer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
Interests: sports economics; sports events; sports tourism

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Success, injuries, future career opportunities of athletes, but also societal gains of participating in sports and of organizing (mega) sports events are all related to individual risk-taking behavior. Although the sports economics and management literatures have broadly addressed these issues, it is surprising that less attention has been paid to the implications of risk-taking on the organization of sports in general and, more particularly, on the design and behavior of sports organization members. This Special Issue attempts to fill this gap, inviting authors to contribute to the following fields of research:

(i) Risk-taking in elite sports production (e.g., risky decisions under competitive pressure, the decision to comply with the rules of competition including doping decisions, hiring decisions of teams, athletes’ decisions to determine their future career path);

(ii) Community risk-taking in organizing sports events (e.g., economic evaluation of mega events, attitudes of a community’s population towards sports events);

(iii) Implications of risk-taking for the organization of sports in general and for sports organizations in particular (e.g., insurance-related issues of sports participation or treatment of corrupt behavior in sports). We are also interested on how the recent COVID-19 crises has changed risk-taking in sports and particularly the above-mentioned organizational aspects of sports.

This Special Issue focuses generally on “Risk-Taking in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations”. It includes a broad range of issues, ranging from individual (athlete) or group risk-taking in sports to societal effects of organizing sports events. We are particularly interested in the implications of risk-taking for the organization of sports in general and sports organizations in particular.

We welcome theoretical and empirical papers on the above-mentioned issues, also taking the perspective of different actors in sports (athletes, trainers, team owners, viewers, and other stakeholders such as sponsors, event organizers, and sports organizations). We also encourage interdisciplinary contributions.

Prof. Dr. Hannes Winner
Dr. Michael Barth
Prof. Dr. Martin Schnitzer
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Risk and Financial Management is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sports economics
  • sports management
  • risk-taking in professional sports (e.g., doping, injuries, post-career path)
  • risk-taking in organizing (mega) sports events
  • implications of risk-taking on the organization of sports
  • risk treatment in sports organizations
  • risk taking after COVID-19 pandemic

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 177 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial: Special Issue “Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations”
by Michael Barth, Martin Schnitzer and Hannes Winner
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2023, 16(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm16010010 - 26 Dec 2022
Viewed by 2298
Abstract
Most people will agree that skiing down the Streif—one of the world’s most dangerous alpine downhill ski slopes—at nearly 90 miles per hour is quite a risky business [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

12 pages, 285 KiB  
Article
Is Professional Soccer a Risk for Their “Lives Afterwards”? A Social-Sciences-Based Examination of Retired Professional Soccer Players from a Long-Term Perspective
by Michael Barth, Torsten Schlesinger and Werner Pitsch
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2022, 15(12), 609; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15120609 - 15 Dec 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3271
Abstract
Most professional soccer players’ careers end before their forties. Consequently, many of them face a relatively early retirement from their profession, thus facing multifaceted changes and potential issues of adjustments in different areas of their lives. Public discussion and therein expressed concerns have [...] Read more.
Most professional soccer players’ careers end before their forties. Consequently, many of them face a relatively early retirement from their profession, thus facing multifaceted changes and potential issues of adjustments in different areas of their lives. Public discussion and therein expressed concerns have led to increased attention on the topic, notably among practitioners and researchers. This study described and analyzed central retirement transition and adjustment outcomes of ex-professional soccer players from a social sciences and long-term perspective. A total of 78 ex-professionals completed the online questionnaire, most of them having played in the highest German soccer division for several years and having retired from professional soccer 10 years or more ago. Overall, 8.9% (95% CI 2.5 to 21.2; n = 45) showed signs of mental health problems. Compared to the results of a gender- and age-matched sample from the German population, retired ex-professionals were significantly more satisfied with their life and their personal income, and assessed themselves as having a higher subjective social status. Although further evidence is necessary to draw any final conclusion, our results do not point to those publicly discussed concerning central retirement transition and adjustment outcomes of (average) former professional soccer players in the long run. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
20 pages, 1427 KiB  
Article
Politicians’ Personal Legacies from Olympic Bids and Referenda—An Analysis of Individual Risks and Opportunities
by Thomas Könecke and Michiel de Nooij
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2022, 15(12), 594; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15120594 - 11 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2371
Abstract
The popularity of staging Olympic Games has dropped in democratic countries as a series of failed referenda and withdrawn bids as well as protests against mega sport events have shown in recent years. Nevertheless, the there still are democratically elected office-holders willing to [...] Read more.
The popularity of staging Olympic Games has dropped in democratic countries as a series of failed referenda and withdrawn bids as well as protests against mega sport events have shown in recent years. Nevertheless, the there still are democratically elected office-holders willing to become involved in an Olympic bid despite the high probability of public opposition and the threat of an almost unwinnable referendum. This conceptual study analyses the individual risk management that these politicians have to concern themselves with because of their involvement in Olympic bids and referenda. It does so by looking at possible ‘personal legacies’ the politicians can obtain. It is interesting to note that although the size of such legacies will vary, they can result irrespective of the outcome of a bid or a referendum and can have positive, negative, or neutral effects for the politician(s) in question. As will be shown, personal legacies can also be obtained by opponents of Olympic bidding ambitions, which is not the only finding that is problematic particularly for the IOC and National Olympic Committees interested in hosting Olympic Games or other sport events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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14 pages, 1199 KiB  
Article
Doping in Recreational Sport as a Risk Management Strategy
by Werner Pitsch
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2022, 15(12), 574; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15120574 - 2 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3015
Abstract
Knowledge about the prevalence of doping in recreational sports is still limited and fragmented. The same holds true for explanations of doping prevalence rates among different groups. One of the few theoretical models that exists uses the concept of consumer capital based on [...] Read more.
Knowledge about the prevalence of doping in recreational sports is still limited and fragmented. The same holds true for explanations of doping prevalence rates among different groups. One of the few theoretical models that exists uses the concept of consumer capital based on Stigler and Becker’s theory of rational addiction. Building on the largest study on doping in recreational sports that has ever been conducted in Europe, the FAIR+ survey, hypotheses on the differences in doping prevalence rates, by the level of participation in competitions and by the relative time spent participating in the sport are, developed. Statistical tests support the model while also drawing attention to the limitations of this theoretical explanation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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13 pages, 1486 KiB  
Article
How Much Are Fans Willing to Pay to Help “Their” Soccer Clubs to Overcome a Crisis? An Analysis of Central European Fans during the COVID-19 Pandemic
by Petri Lintumäki, Clemens Walcher and Martin Schnitzer
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2022, 15(12), 570; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15120570 - 1 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2686
Abstract
Through restrictions and people’s behavioral changes with regard to public events, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a massive financial impact on professional team sports clubs. Particularly, many smaller clubs that are more dependent on match-day revenues were facing an existential struggle. In this [...] Read more.
Through restrictions and people’s behavioral changes with regard to public events, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a massive financial impact on professional team sports clubs. Particularly, many smaller clubs that are more dependent on match-day revenues were facing an existential struggle. In this study, we examined the willingness of fans to contribute financially to help their favorite teams to overcome financial difficulties caused by this unforeseen operational risk. Moreover, we investigated the significance of the level of team identification among fans as an antecedent for willingness to pay. Analyzing the data from an online survey with 178 respondents, we found that fans would be willing to participate in fundraising campaigns to support their favorite teams. Among the fans of small clubs, the level of identification drives the willingness to support. On the one hand, the findings are encouraging for clubs as they underscore the potential role fans could play in overcoming the current crisis while showing that including fans in future risk management strategies is a promising approach. On the other hand, for this to be successful, clubs need to unravel and invest in measures for nurturing the fans’ identification with the team. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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17 pages, 579 KiB  
Article
Selected Issues of (Good) Governance in North American Professional Sports Leagues
by Nelson Morales and Mathias Schubert
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2022, 15(11), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15110515 - 4 Nov 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6444
Abstract
In recent years, sport governing bodies (SGB) have been the subject of serious questions regarding their governance structures and decision-making processes. SGB that fail to implement regulatory mechanisms and to improve their governance structures and processes risk being confronted with severe ethically sensitive [...] Read more.
In recent years, sport governing bodies (SGB) have been the subject of serious questions regarding their governance structures and decision-making processes. SGB that fail to implement regulatory mechanisms and to improve their governance structures and processes risk being confronted with severe ethically sensitive issues outside and inside the fields, which may eventually result in negative publicity and reduced demand (e.g., fans, sponsors) or financial support (e.g., from governments). This study examines selected regulations and practices of North American professional sports leagues in light of good governance principles. By adopting a qualitative research design, we investigate if there is a need for reforms to be employed by the leagues to comply with core dimensions of governance and thus reduce the risk of not being prepared to deal with ethically sensitive issues that may come up. Our critical analysis suggests that essential reforms need to be employed by the leagues to comply with core principles of good governance. In terms of democracy, professional leagues need to recognise stakeholder interests, implement innovative participation mechanisms, and apply diversity and inclusion policies for board composition. On transparency, it is required to publish internal regulations and financial information despite lax regulations on disclosure policies in the United States. Concerning accountability, professional leagues should separate their disciplinary and executive branches to avoid the concentration of power and potential conflict of interest in the relationship between the commissioner and team owners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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16 pages, 710 KiB  
Article
The Consequences of a Switch to Free-to-Play for Overwatch and Its Esports League
by Thomas Newham, Nicolas Scelles and Maurizio Valenti
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2022, 15(11), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15110490 - 24 Oct 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4011
Abstract
Videogames and their business models have evolved significantly over time, with consumers preferring a shift towards free-to-play (F2P) without any initial purchase, as evidenced in the popularity of Fortnite, Warzone and others. The aim of this research is to establish the viability of [...] Read more.
Videogames and their business models have evolved significantly over time, with consumers preferring a shift towards free-to-play (F2P) without any initial purchase, as evidenced in the popularity of Fortnite, Warzone and others. The aim of this research is to establish the viability of a switch from a buy-to-play (B2P) to a F2P model for the game Overwatch and the impact on its associated esports. The relevant literature within the subject area was identified. A framework was then developed to determine whether a switch to F2P would be successful for Overwatch, based on the criteria seen as significant within the literature identified. These criteria represent a mix of quantitative and qualitative approaches, and a mix of styles, with some being more descriptive with biographical elements of the author’s experience, and others being more analytical. The main conclusion drawn from the analysis undertaken is that Overwatch would be well suited for a switch to F2P. The sequel to Overwatch, Overwatch 2, is due to release in the near future, which would have opened the possibility of Overwatch being free, while Overwatch 2 is paid. However, Overwatch 1 is confirmed to be shutting down completely. It is also concluded there would be a likely increase in player numbers, and that a switch to F2P is likely to improve the problematic esports scene associated with Overwatch. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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18 pages, 330 KiB  
Article
Season Ticketing as a Risk Management Tool in Professional Team Sports: A Pricing Analysis of German Soccer and Basketball
by Christopher Huth and Markus Kurscheidt
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2022, 15(9), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15090392 - 3 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3686
Abstract
Ticket sales remain a significant source of revenue in professional team sports. However, season ticket revenue, as an effective risk-reducing instrument, is rarely analyzed in the literature. This study aims to determine, from a price and product perspective, the extent to which different [...] Read more.
Ticket sales remain a significant source of revenue in professional team sports. However, season ticket revenue, as an effective risk-reducing instrument, is rarely analyzed in the literature. This study aims to determine, from a price and product perspective, the extent to which different factors affect season ticket prices. Using three different professional German sports leagues, a ticket-pricing model was developed as the empirical model. Consistent with other pricing studies, an ordinary least-squares (OLS) model and a Tobit model were fit. The results indicate that different season ticket rights, type of season ticket, club league membership, fan club membership, club stadium utilization rate, club sporting performance, and club market size have significant negative or positive impacts on season ticket price. Whereas, for example, a reserved seat in the stadium has a positive impact, the population of the club’s city has a negative impact. Based on the results, club managers should consider all traditional season ticket rights and season ticket discounts when calculating season ticket pricing. These and further implications are discussed with respect to the risk management issues of season ticket pricing in light of the COVID-19 pandemic and differences in local market constellations of professional team sports clubs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
12 pages, 423 KiB  
Article
Childhood Sporting Experience and Charitable Donations to Disaster Victims
by Eiji Yamamura
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2022, 15(5), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15050229 - 23 May 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2519
Abstract
I investigated how people’s childhood experiences of involvement in team sports helped them develop non-cognitive skills, which later prompted them to make charitable donations to disaster victims. I independently collected individual-level data from approximately 7000 observations in 2016. The instrumental variable (IV) method [...] Read more.
I investigated how people’s childhood experiences of involvement in team sports helped them develop non-cognitive skills, which later prompted them to make charitable donations to disaster victims. I independently collected individual-level data from approximately 7000 observations in 2016. The instrumental variable (IV) method was used for the estimations. In the specification of the IV model, sporting experience and informal education in childhood were used as exogenous IV. I found that (1) sporting experiences cause people to have positive subjective views of reciprocity, (2) team sports experience has a larger effect on people than individual sports experience, and (3) the above lead people to donate to disaster victims of enormous disasters such as the Great East Japan Earthquake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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18 pages, 908 KiB  
Article
Doping Sanctions in Sport: Knowledge and Perception of (Legal) Consequences of Doping—An Explorative Study in Austria
by Cornelia Blank, Magdalena Flatscher-Thöni, Katharina Gatterer, Elisabeth Happ, Wolfgang Schobersberger and Verena Stühlinger
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2021, 14(12), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14120603 - 13 Dec 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6785
Abstract
Anti-doping rule violations (ADRVs) can lead to sports-related and legal sanctions, thus, being knowledgeable is important. Research into this knowledge and how athletes and their support personnel (ASP) perceive the control mechanisms and the appropriateness of (legal) sanctions is still scarce. This explorative [...] Read more.
Anti-doping rule violations (ADRVs) can lead to sports-related and legal sanctions, thus, being knowledgeable is important. Research into this knowledge and how athletes and their support personnel (ASP) perceive the control mechanisms and the appropriateness of (legal) sanctions is still scarce. This explorative study aimed to examine the knowledge and perception of existing (legal) sanctions in Austria, by distributing a questionnaire to Austrian athletes and ASP covering the topics of knowledge related to legal and sports-related consequences associated with a specific ADRV presented in a case study, their trust and satisfaction with specific agencies (based on the European Social Survey (ESS)) and perceived efficiency and effectiveness of the doping control system. Data were analyzed descriptively. All respondents (N = 59) agreed on a ban from sport to be appropriate. Knowledge about legal consequences and the trust in the judiciary and the sport governing bodies was moderate (6.82 out of 10). Perceived appropriate consequences were on average higher than the likely sanctions to be faced. Future prevention should include trust building measures in the institutions and the control system, improvement in terms of access to law and education for the target group and critical reflection on the existence of social norms. Furthermore, the implementation of risk management aspects should be part of future approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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16 pages, 745 KiB  
Article
Fans’ Perceptions towards Video Assistant Referee (VAR) in the English Premier League
by Tommy Hamsund and Nicolas Scelles
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2021, 14(12), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14120573 - 28 Nov 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 19503
Abstract
The video assistant referee (VAR) in association football was developed to help on-field referees judge potentially game-changing decisions correctly by reviewing video evidence in real time. VAR was implemented by the English Premier League (EPL) ahead of the 2019/20 season. Despite its potential [...] Read more.
The video assistant referee (VAR) in association football was developed to help on-field referees judge potentially game-changing decisions correctly by reviewing video evidence in real time. VAR was implemented by the English Premier League (EPL) ahead of the 2019/20 season. Despite its potential benefits, VAR also presents the risk of not being well perceived by fans. This article aims to investigate fans’ perceptions towards VAR in the EPL. Total of 1350 EPL fans from different age groups above 18 years old completed an online survey on their opinion of VAR and changes they felt would make VAR better. The majority of fans were happy for VAR to continue being used in the EPL, but expressed that changes need to be made in terms of how VAR is being used by on-field referees and to assess certain situations. All age groups were generally positive towards the idea of using technology in the EPL to support referee decisions and provide more information to in-stadium fans, but younger age groups showed significantly more positive perceptions than their older counterparts. Implications include advice for the EPL to make changes according to fans’ opinions and to develop frameworks for making changes with fans as stakeholders in mind. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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17 pages, 574 KiB  
Article
Leader Dismissal or Continuity, President Longevity, Geographic Orientation of Owners and Team Performance: Insights from French Men’s Football, 1994–2016
by Nicolas Scelles and Matthieu Llorca
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2021, 14(9), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14090439 - 10 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2830
Abstract
We investigated the impacts of president longevity and the geographic orientation of owners on team performance and on the effectiveness of dismissing the leader. In addition, we considered their impacts on the effectiveness of not dismissing the leader while the same organisation fires [...] Read more.
We investigated the impacts of president longevity and the geographic orientation of owners on team performance and on the effectiveness of dismissing the leader. In addition, we considered their impacts on the effectiveness of not dismissing the leader while the same organisation fires them at another time for a similar performance. We also tested the impact of dismissing the leader or not on performance. We explored the aforementioned risk-taking relationships in the first tier of French men’s football over the 1994–2016 period (n = 4918 observations). To do so, we used a counterfactual based on the evolution of the team position over the last three games leading to the leader change and estimate linear regression models with fixed team effects. Our findings show that performance improves either after a leader dismissal or not in the same situation, and both president longevity and the geographic orientation of owners impact the effectiveness of dismissing the leader or not. In particular, global- and local-oriented ownerships have a positive impact on the effectiveness of the decision to dismiss the leader or not compared to national-oriented ownership. Practical implications stem from the research, e.g., how organisations with national-oriented ownership can overcome their competitive disadvantage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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20 pages, 332 KiB  
Article
How the Covid-19 Pandemic Influenced the Approach to Risk Management in Cycling Events
by Filippo Bazzanella, Nunzio Muratore, Philipp Alexander Schlemmer and Elisabeth Happ
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2021, 14(7), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14070296 - 29 Jun 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5078
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has taught us to live in social isolation and has brought an important element of social life, the events industry, to a complete standstill. In resurrecting the events industry, the most urgent focus is on managing the risk of any [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic has taught us to live in social isolation and has brought an important element of social life, the events industry, to a complete standstill. In resurrecting the events industry, the most urgent focus is on managing the risk of any crowd-control measures with a view to reducing to zero the danger of the virus spreading. This research focuses on the main issue of the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on the organization of sports events (SEs), and in particular, cycling competitions. This study, therefore, aims to provide deeper insights into (a) the measures introduced to face the health emergency situation in cycling events, (b) the comparison of these measures with previous experiences in similar SE contexts, and (c) the possible evolution of organizational models for cycling events in the post-pandemic era. Fifteen semi-structured interviews with cycling athletes, managers, and officials constitute the methodological basis for this study. The results show that countermeasures have been taken that are effective in dealing with pandemic characteristics and are likely to be applied in the future, while others will be phased out or used again only when necessary. This study enhances scientific knowledge by analyzing a renewed approach to risk management for SEs, with a specific focus on pandemics and medical risks. Finally, the study shows that cycling events need to adapt the specifics of such a new approach to the standards projected on future scenarios for which the COVID-19 pandemic has paved the way. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk in Sports and Challenges for Sports Organizations)
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