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Training and Performance in Soccer

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A Special Issue of Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (ISSN 2411-5142) belonging to the section "Athletic Training and Human Performance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 January 2027 | Viewed by 4344

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Editors

Prof. Dr. Luis Suárez-Arrones

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Department of Sport and Informatics, Section of Physical Education and Sport, Pablo de Olavide University, Sevilla, Spain
Interests: training; testing; football; injury; return-to-sport; strength; muscle; training load
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Prof. Dr. Francisco Javier Núñez Sánchez

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Department of Sports and Informatics, University of Pablo de Olavide of Sevilla, 41013 Seville, Spain
Interests: strength; testing; rehabilitation; return to play; football; conditioning
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Dr. Jose Asian-Clemente

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1. Department of Sport Sciences, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
2. FSI Lab, Football Science Institute, 18016 Granada, Spain
Interests: soccer; training load; external load; strength; injury prevention
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Football is a complex team sport with a significant impact on the scientific literature. This complexity arises from the nature of the game, which involves continuous changes in movement, speed and direction, alternating high-intensity actions with variable recovery periods. Football involves intermittent exercise that requires the engagement of both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The most decisive situations are associated with strength- and speed-related abilities, such as sprinting, changes of direction, jumping, and shooting. In this context, various training strategies have been effectively employed to improve specific performance outcomes in football players.

Lower-limb injuries are common in football, with previous injuries representing the most significant risk factor for future occurrences. These injuries result from a complex interaction of multiple risk factors, and both evaluation methods and exercise-based programs are commonly implemented with the goal of reducing injury risk.

This Special Issue provides a platform for the publication of rigorous systematic reviews and meta-analyses, original research articles, and innovative case reports that explore training methods, performance assessment and strategies to enhance football performance and mitigate injury risk in both youth and adult players.

Prof. Dr. Luis Suárez-Arrones
Prof. Dr. Francisco Javier Núñez Sánchez
Dr. Jose Asian-Clemente
Guest Editors

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

soccer
strength
evaluation
power
return to play
conditioning
tactical
running activity
sprint

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 342 KB

Open AccessArticle

Using the Relative Pitch Size, Internal Floaters, and External Floaters During Different Small-Sided Games in Professional Soccer in the Return-to-Play Process

by Michael C. Rumpf, Johannes Jäger, João Renato Silva and Matthias Lochmann

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(3), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11030327 - 23 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Background and Objectives: The aim was to investigate the external load of different types of floaters and regular players in small-sided games (SSG) with different relative pitch sizes to inform the return-to-play process. Methods: Twenty-four professional soccer players from a Greek top-tier soccer club played SSG as regular players, internal floaters, and external floaters. Global-positioning units were utilized to investigate total distance (TD), as well as high-intensity running distances (HID), which was further divided into HID1 (15.0–19.9 km/h and HID2 (20.0–24.9 km/h). High-intensity running (HIR) was analyzed by distance and number of efforts (HIRnb) greater than 19.8 km/h. Velocity zones were categorized into zones such as 10.8–14.4 km/h (Zone3), 14.5–19.8 km/h (Zone4), 19.9–24.9 km/h (Zone5), >25 km/h (Zone6). Sprint metrics included number of sprints (Sprint/Nm) and sprint distance (Sprint/Dist). Acceleration bands were defined as high >4 m/s² (ACC4), moderate 3–3.9 m/s² (ACC3), and low 0–2.9 m/s² (ACC2); and decelerations were defined as high <−4 m/s² (DEC4), moderate −3.9–3 m/s² (DEC3), and low −2.9–0 (DEC2 m/s²). All data were reported as relative value (standardized over a 1 min playing period). Results: Regular players showed the highest value, followed by internal floaters and external floaters for all variables, except for Zone5 distance. The majority of variables differed significantly between the regular players and the internal floaters except for TD, distance in Zone3 and Zone6, and number of ACC3, ACC4, and DEC4. ACC4 was the only variable found to be not significantly different between the regular players and the external floaters. In games with both floater types, internal floaters showed significantly higher values in all variables except for HIR, Zone6 distance, Sprint/Dist, Sprint/Nm, ACC3, ACC4, and DEC4. The comparison of external load variables between internal and external floaters when each player type was playing against regular players only revealed significantly higher values for all variables except for Sprint/Dist, Sprint/Nm, Zone6 distance, ACC3, and ACC4 for the internal floaters. Regression analyses were provided for all player types in the appropriated game format (RP with IF, RP with EF, RP with IF and EF). Conclusions: The on-field return-to-play process for individual players in the final stages incorporating SSG with different relative pitch sizes benefits from the utilization of different types of floaters. Increasing external load is ensured through starting with external floaters followed by internal floaters easing into the final role, the regular player role. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Performance in Soccer)

18 pages, 1568 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sleep Hygiene Improves Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance Independent of Cortisol Mediation in Female Collegiate Soccer Players

by Elric Pretorius, Mark Kramer and Adele Broodryk

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020187 - 7 May 2026

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Abstract

Background: Sleep hygiene protocols (SHPs) have been shown to improve sleep and stress regulation; however, the role of cortisol in shaping downstream physiological and performance adaptations remains unclear. This study primarily examined the effects of a short-term SHP on sleep duration and salivary cortisol responses across resting, pre-exercise, and post-exercise states in female collegiate soccer players and, secondarily, whether cortisol statistically mediated selected aerobic and anaerobic performance outcomes. Methods: Fourteen players (22.1 ± 3.3 y; 157.8 ± 6.0 cm; 53.5 ± 3.9 kg) completed a randomised, counterbalanced crossover study comparing habitual sleep (no sleep hygiene protocol; nSHP) with a comprehensive SHP incorporating environmental, behavioural, and educational strategies. Salivary cortisol was sampled one hour post-waking and 30 min pre- and 15 min post-exercise during standardised testing sessions. Performance outcomes included vertical jump, sprint performance (40 m and repeated sprints [RAST]), and the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1. Linear mixed-effects models assessed cortisol responses, and mediation analyses explored cortisol–performance relationships. Results: After SHP, perceived (7.87 h vs. 6.5 h; p = 0.002, ESg = 1.0) and calculated sleep duration (8.5 h vs. 6.9 h; p = 0.004, ESg = 0.95) increased significantly. Cortisol was markedly lower following SHP at selected timepoints, including before RAST (−43.05%, p = 0.006, ESg = 0.84), with additional timepoint-specific, condition-dependent differences post-anaerobic and post-aerobic exercise (Δ = 7.37 and 5.98 nmol·L⁻¹, respectively; p < 0.001). Vertical jump height demonstrated significant total (9.92 cm, p = 0.002) and direct effects (7.72 cm, p = 0.034), and peak repeated-sprint performance showed a significant direct effect (p = 0.026). Cortisol did not significantly mediate any performance outcomes (ACME p > 0.05). Conclusions: Short-term sleep hygiene is associated with increased sleep duration, timepoint-specific modulation of cortisol responses, and selected anaerobic performance benefits; however, these effects were not explained by measured cortisol responses and are unlikely to be sustained without ongoing reinforcement or support, particularly in athletic populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Performance in Soccer)

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11 pages, 648 KB

Open AccessArticle

Velocity-Dependent Eccentric Knee-Flexion Isokinetic Assessment in Elite Professional Soccer Players: Reliability, Inter-Limb Asymmetry and Mechanical Characteristics

by Francisco Javier Nuñez, Marco Carletta, Gloria Picco, Reyes Adorna, Juan Luis Nuñez-González and Luis Suarez-Arrones

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020184 - 30 Apr 2026

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Abstract

Objective: The primary aim of this study was to compare eccentric knee flexion isokinetic performance at two commonly used angular velocities (60°·s⁻¹ and 180°·s⁻¹) between dominant and non-dominant limbs in healthy professional soccer players through the analysis of peak torque, mean peak torque, angle of peak torque, total work, and rate-of-torque-development-related variables. The secondary aim was to describe concentric knee extension and knee flexion strength variables assessed at 60°·s⁻¹. Methods: Forty male professional soccer players performed concentric knee flexion–extension testing at 60°·s⁻¹ and eccentric knee flexion testing at 60°·s⁻¹ and 180°·s⁻¹ using an isokinetic dynamometer. Peak torque (PT), mean peak torque (MPT), angle of peak torque (APT), total work (TW), and hamstrings: quadriceps ratios (H:Q ratios) were analyzed for dominant and non-dominant limbs. Inter-limb differences, repetition effects, and reliability indices were calculated. Results: No significant inter-limb differences were observed for most variables (trivial–small effect sizes), except for higher eccentric TW at 180°·s⁻¹ in the dominant limb (p = 0.009). Eccentric PT and MPT decreased at higher velocities in both dominant (p = 0.002 and p < 0.001, respectively) and non-dominant (p = 0.008 and p < 0.001, respectively) limbs, while APT shifted toward more flexed knee angles (p < 0.001). Reliability was good to excellent (ICC = 0.81–0.87), with low measurement error. Conclusion: Eccentric knee flexion assessment at 60°·s⁻¹ and 180°·s⁻¹ angular velocities provided different results in PT, MPT, and APT for the same group of players, supporting the use of more than one eccentric test for obtaining information about these variables in elite soccer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Performance in Soccer)

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19 pages, 2841 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Latent Dimensionality of Physical and Technical Performance Across Three Youth Soccer Tiers

by Adem Preljević, Saša Bubanj, Dušan Stanković, Miladin Okičić, Dalila Preljević, Emilija Petković, Miodrag Kocić, Tomislav Gašić, Bojan Bjelica, Ivana Parčina, Sanja Krsmanović Veličković, Milan Mihajlović, Tatiana Dobrescu and Adrian Mihai Sava

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020177 - 28 Apr 2026

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Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to examine the structure of anthropometric characteristics, motor skills and specific motor skills in young football players. Methods: Study participants (427 male football players) were divided into pre-pioneers (11–13 y), n = 133; pioneers (13–15 y), n = 160; and cadets (15–17 y), n = 134. The entire sample of subjects was evaluated using 13 anthropometric and seven motor variables. The factor structure for each chronological age group was determined using Hotelling’s method. Results: Anthropometric characteristics showed three extracted factors in the pre-pioneers group, four factors in the pioneer group and two factors in the cadet group. Motor skills displayed three factors for the youngest group, two factors for the pioneers and three factors for the cadet group. Four factors were determined for specific motor skills in pre-pioneers, four in pioneers and three in cadet age. Conclusions: This study revealed structural variability and non-uniformity in the latent dimensions across age groups, with the total number of factors fluctuating between two and four. This study revealed two consistent latent dimensions in anthropometric data across all age groups: general morphological parameters and subcutaneous fat tissue. In motor skills, an initial universal factor is separated into central and energetic regulation of movements. Finally, specific motor skills demonstrated a transition from a highly differentiated four-factor structure in younger players toward a more integrated functional system in the oldest cohort, comprising intermuscular coordination, running speed with and without a ball; segmental speed of the lower extremities with a ball; and explosive force in hitting a ball with the foot and head. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Performance in Soccer)

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Review

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20 pages, 715 KB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Task Constraint Manipulation on Physical, Physiological and Technical–Tactical Demands of Small-Sided Games in Soccer: A Systematic Review

by Pakorn Chootsungnoen, Wirat Sonchan, Phornpot Chainok and Pornchai Leenoi

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(3), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11030354 - 5 Sep 2026

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Abstract

Background: Small-sided games (SSGs) are widely used in soccer training to develop physical, physiological, and technical–tactical capacities under game-representative conditions. Although task constraints have been investigated individually, evidence integrating their effects across major categories remains limited. This systematic review synthesized the effects of six task-constraint domains on SSG demands in association football. Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, systematic searches were conducted in PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Scopus. Forty studies published between 2015 and 2025 met the eligibility criteria and were categorized into six task-constraint domains: pitch size or area per player (n = 13), player number (n = 8), goalkeeper inclusion (n = 6), goal type (n = 5), numerical imbalance and floater players (n = 8), and transition games (n = 6). The review protocol was prospectively registered in PROSPERO. Results: Larger pitch areas consistently increased high-speed running but were insufficient to reproduce match-level sprint demands. Goalkeeper exclusion increased physiological intensity, particularly in smaller formats, whereas mini-goals reduced external locomotor load while maintaining comparable internal responses. Numerical disadvantage increased sprinting and high-intensity running demands for outnumbered players, while floaters experienced substantially lower physical loads than regular players. Transition games elicited the greatest locomotor demands, exceeding match values for high-speed running and sprinting across several playing positions. Conclusions: No single SSG format adequately addresses all match-relevant physical demands. Accordingly, practitioners should systematically manipulate and combine task constraints in accordance with specific training objectives. These findings provide evidence-informed guidance for optimizing SSG design to elicit targeted physical, physiological, and technical–tactical adaptations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Performance in Soccer)

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22 pages, 695 KB

Open AccessReview

Soccer Players’ Physical Performance After Loaded Plyometric-Jump Training: A Systematic Review

by Miguel Alarcón-Rivera, Joaquín Salazar-Méndez, Eduardo Guzmán-Muñoz, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo, Ivan Castillo Montecinos and Luis Arturo Gómez-Landero

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(3), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11030280 - 20 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Objective: This systematic review examined the effects of loaded plyometric-jump training (LPJT) on physical performance outcomes in soccer players. Methods: A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and Embase covered all records from database inception to February 2026, with an additional update performed in March 2026. Eligible studies were randomized controlled trials comparing LPJT with unloaded plyometric-jump training (UPJT) or passive control conditions. Methodological quality was assessed using the PEDro scale, risk of bias using RoB 2, and certainty of evidence using the GRADE approach. Findings were synthesized narratively. Results: Six randomized controlled trials involving 214 soccer players met the inclusion criteria. In general, LPJT showed favorable within-group changes in selected physical performance outcomes, particularly horizontal jump performance and some strength- and power-related variables. However, comparable improvements were also observed after UPJT in several outcomes, including vertical jump performance, linear sprint performance, change-of-direction and agility performance, and soccer-specific outcomes. Five studies raised some concerns, and one study presented a high overall risk of bias. The certainty of evidence ranged from low to very low across outcomes. Conclusions: Current evidence remains highly uncertain and does not allow firm conclusions regarding the superiority of LPJT over UPJT or passive control conditions. LPJT may therefore be considered a possible alternative to UPJT rather than a demonstrably superior approach. LPJT may be associated with favorable changes in selected performance outcomes. However, these findings should be interpreted cautiously because of the small evidence base, limited sample sizes, methodological heterogeneity, residual risk of bias concerns, and low to very low certainty of evidence. Further well-designed randomized controlled trials are needed to clarify whether LPJT provides additional benefits beyond conventional unloaded plyometric training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Performance in Soccer)

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