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15 pages, 529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Enhanced Heterogeneous Gateway-Based Energy-Aware Multi-Hop Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks

by Fuseini Jibreel, Emmanuel Tuyishimire and Mohammed Ibrahim Daabo

Information 2022, 13(4), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/info13040166 - 25 Mar 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2255

Abstract

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) continue to provide essential services for various applications such as surveillance, data gathering, and data transmission from hazardous environments to safer destinations. This has been enhanced by the energy-efficient routing protocols that are mostly designed for such purposes. Gateway-based [...] Read more.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) continue to provide essential services for various applications such as surveillance, data gathering, and data transmission from hazardous environments to safer destinations. This has been enhanced by the energy-efficient routing protocols that are mostly designed for such purposes. Gateway-based Energy-Aware Multi-hop Routing protocol (MGEAR) is one of the homogenous routing schemes that was recently designed to more efficiently reduce the energy consumption of distant nodes. However, it has been found that the protocol has a high energy consumption rate, lower stability period, and poorer data transmission to the Base station (BS) when it was deployed for a longer period of time. In this paper, an enhanced Heterogeneous Gateway-based Energy-Aware multi-hop routing protocol (HMGEAR) is proposed. The proposed routing scheme is based on the introduction of heterogeneous nodes in the existing scheme, selection of the head based on the residual energy, introduction of multi-hop communication strategy in all the regions of the network, and implementation of energy hole elimination technique. All these strategies are aiming at reducing energy consumption and extend the life of the network. Results show that the proposed routing scheme outperforms two existing ones in terms of stability period, throughputs, residual energy, and the lifetime of the network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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13 pages, 3453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Empirical Analysis of IPv4 and IPv6 Networks through Dual-Stack Sites

by Kwun-Hung Li and Kin-Yeung Wong

Information 2021, 12(6), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/info12060246 - 14 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5304

Abstract

IPv6 is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), which can solve the problem of IPv4 address exhaustion and allow the growth of the Internet (particularly in the era of the Internet of Things). IPv6 networks have been deployed for more [...] Read more.

IPv6 is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), which can solve the problem of IPv4 address exhaustion and allow the growth of the Internet (particularly in the era of the Internet of Things). IPv6 networks have been deployed for more than a decade, and the deployment is still growing every year. This empirical study was conducted from the perspective of end users to evaluate IPv6 and IPv4 performance by sending probing traffic to 1792 dual-stack sites around the world. Connectivity, packet loss, hop count, round-trip time (RTT), and throughput were used as performance metrics. The results show that, compared with IPv4, IPv6 has better connectivity, lower packet loss, and similar hop count. However, compared with IPv4, it has higher latency and lower throughput. We compared our results with previous studies conducted in 2004, 2007, and 2014 to investigate the improvement of IPv6 networks. The results of the past 16 years have shown that the connectivity of IPv6 has increased by 1–4%, and the IPv6 RTT (194.85 ms) has been greatly reduced, but it is still longer than IPv4 (163.72 ms). The throughput of IPv6 is still lower than that of IPv4. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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20 pages, 1449 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Internet of Things: A General Overview between Architectures, Protocols and Applications

by Marco Lombardi, Francesco Pascale and Domenico Santaniello

Information 2021, 12(2), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/info12020087 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 103 | Viewed by 15349

Abstract

In recent years, the growing number of devices connected to the internet has increased significantly. These devices can interact with the external environment and with human beings through a wide range of sensors that, perceiving reality through the digitization of some parameters of [...] Read more.

In recent years, the growing number of devices connected to the internet has increased significantly. These devices can interact with the external environment and with human beings through a wide range of sensors that, perceiving reality through the digitization of some parameters of interest, can provide an enormous amount of data. All this data is then shared on the network with other devices and with different applications and infrastructures. This dynamic and ever-changing world underlies the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm. To date, countless applications based on IoT have been developed; think of Smart Cities, smart roads, and smart industries. This article analyzes the current architectures, technologies, protocols, and applications that characterize the paradigm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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28 pages, 742 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Device Discovery and Context Registration in Static Context Header Compression Networks

by Bart Moons, Eli De Poorter and Jeroen Hoebeke

Information 2021, 12(2), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/info12020083 - 16 Feb 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2350

Abstract

Due to the limited bandwidth of Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWAN), the application layer is currently often tied straight above the link layer, limiting the evolution of sensor networks distributed over a large area. Consequently, the highly efficient Static Context Header Compression (SCHC) standard [...] Read more.

Due to the limited bandwidth of Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWAN), the application layer is currently often tied straight above the link layer, limiting the evolution of sensor networks distributed over a large area. Consequently, the highly efficient Static Context Header Compression (SCHC) standard was introduced, where devices can compress the IPv6 and upper layer protocols down to a single byte. This approach, however, assumes that every compression context is distributed before deployment, again limiting the evolution of such networks. Therefore, this paper presents two context registration mechanisms leveraging on the SCHC adaptation layer. This is done by analyzing current registration solutions in order to find limitations and optimizations with regard to very constrained networks. Both solutions and the current State-of-The-Art (SoTA) are evaluated in a Lightweight Machine to Machine (LwM2M) environment. In such situation, both developed solutions decrease the energy consumption already after 25 transmissions, compared with the current SoTA. Furthermore, simulations show that Long Range (LoRa) devices still have a 80% chance to successfully complete the registration flow in a network with a 50% Packet Error Ratio. Briefly, the work presented in this paper delivers bootstrapping tools to constrained, SCHC-enabled networks while still being able to reduce energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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28 pages, 1680 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Study of Energy Efficient Routing Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Rachid Zagrouba and Amine Kardi

Information 2021, 12(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/info12010042 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 6763

Abstract

This paper surveys the energy-efficient routing protocols in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It provides a classification and comparison following a new proposed taxonomy distinguishing nine categories of protocols, namely: Latency-aware and energy-efficient routing, next-hop selection, network architecture, initiator of communication, network topology, protocol [...] Read more.

This paper surveys the energy-efficient routing protocols in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It provides a classification and comparison following a new proposed taxonomy distinguishing nine categories of protocols, namely: Latency-aware and energy-efficient routing, next-hop selection, network architecture, initiator of communication, network topology, protocol operation, delivery mode, path establishment and application type. We analyze each class, discuss its representative routing protocols (mechanisms, advantages, disadvantages…) and compare them based on different parameters under the appropriate class. Simulation results of LEACH, Mod-LEACH, iLEACH, E-DEEC, multichain-PEGASIS and M-GEAR protocols, conducted under the NS3 simulator, show that the routing task must be based on various intelligent techniques to enhance the network lifespan and guarantee better coverage of the sensing area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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16 pages, 2996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Access Control in NB-IoT Networks: A Deep Reinforcement Learning Strategy

by Yassine Hadjadj-Aoul and Soraya Ait-Chellouche

Information 2020, 11(11), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/info11110541 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1879

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a key enabler of the digital mutation of our society. Driven by various services and applications, Machine Type Communications (MTC) will become an integral part of our daily life, over the next few years. Meeting the ITU-T [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a key enabler of the digital mutation of our society. Driven by various services and applications, Machine Type Communications (MTC) will become an integral part of our daily life, over the next few years. Meeting the ITU-T requirements, in terms of density, battery longevity, coverage, price, and supported mechanisms and functionalities, Cellular IoT, and particularly Narrowband-IoT (NB-IoT), is identified as a promising candidate to handle massive MTC accesses. However, this massive connectivity would pose a huge challenge for network operators in terms of scalability. Indeed, the connection to the network in cellular IoT passes through a random access procedure and a high concentration of IoT devices would, very quickly, lead to a bottleneck. The latter procedure needs, then, to be enhanced as the connectivity would be considerable. With this in mind, we propose, in this paper, to apply the access class barring (ACB) mechanism to regulate the number of devices competing for the access. In order to derive the blocking factor, we formulated the access problem as a Markov decision process that we were able to solve using one of the most advanced deep reinforcement learning techniques. The evaluation of the proposed access control, through simulations, shows the effectiveness of our approach compared to existing approaches such as the adaptive one and the Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller. Indeed, it manages to keep the proportion of access attempts close to the optimum, despite the lack of accurate information on the number of access attempts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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17 pages, 3398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimized Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm for the Realization of an Enhanced Energy-Aware Location-Aided Routing Protocol in MANET

by Taj-Aldeen Naser Abdali, Rosilah Hassan, Ravie Chandren Muniyandi, Azana Hafizah Mohd Aman, Quang Ngoc Nguyen and Ahmed Salih Al-Khaleefa

Information 2020, 11(11), 529; https://doi.org/10.3390/info11110529 - 15 Nov 2020

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 3272

Abstract

Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANETs) is a wireless network topology with mobile network nodes and movable communication routes. In addition, the network nodes in MANETs are free to either join or leave the network. Typically, routing in MANETs is multi-hop because of the limited [...] Read more.

Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANETs) is a wireless network topology with mobile network nodes and movable communication routes. In addition, the network nodes in MANETs are free to either join or leave the network. Typically, routing in MANETs is multi-hop because of the limited communication range of nodes. Then, routing protocols have been developed for MANETs. Among them, energy-aware location-aided routing (EALAR) is an efficient reactive MANET routing protocol that has been recently obtained by integrating particle swarm optimization (PSO) with mutation operation into the conventional LAR protocol. However, the mutation operation (nonuniform) used in EALAR has some drawbacks, which make EALAR provide insufficient exploration, exploitation, and diversity of solutions. Therefore, this study aims to propose to apply the Optimized PSO (OPSO) via adopting a mutation operation (uniform) instead of nonuniform. The OPSO is integrated into the LAR protocol to enhance all critical performance metrics, including packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, overhead, and end-to-end delay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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21 pages, 2455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GPRS Sensor Node Battery Life Span Prediction Based on Received Signal Quality: Experimental Study

by Joseph Habiyaremye, Marco Zennaro, Chomora Mikeka, Emmanuel Masabo, Santhi Kumaran and Kayalvizhi Jayavel

Information 2020, 11(11), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/info11110524 - 11 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3464

Abstract

Nowadays with the evolution of Internet of Things (IoT), building a network of sensors for measuring data from remote locations requires a good plan considering a lot of parameters including power consumption. A Lot of communication technologies such as WIFI, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Lora, [...] Read more.

Nowadays with the evolution of Internet of Things (IoT), building a network of sensors for measuring data from remote locations requires a good plan considering a lot of parameters including power consumption. A Lot of communication technologies such as WIFI, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Lora, Sigfox, and GSM/GPRS are being used based on the application and this application will have some requirements such as communication range, power consumption, and detail about data to be transmitted. In some places, especially the hilly area like Rwanda and where GSM connectivity is already covered, GSM/GPRS may be the best choice for IoT applications. Energy consumption is a big challenge in sensor nodes which are specially supplied by batteries as the lifetime of the node and network depends on the state of charge of the battery. In this paper, we are focusing on static sensor nodes communicating using the GPRS protocol. We acquired current consumption for the sensor node in different locations with their corresponding received signal quality and we tried to experimentally find a mathematical data-driven model for estimating the GSM/GPRS sensor node battery lifetime using the received signal strength indicator (RSSI). This research outcome will help to predict GPRS sensor node life, replacement intervals, and dynamic handover which will in turn provide uninterrupted data service. This model can be deployed in various remote WSN and IoT based applications like forests, volcano, etc. Our research has shown convincing results like when there is a reduction of −30 dBm in RSSI, the current consumption of the radio unit of the node will double. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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16 pages, 2496 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Two-Stage Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Nodes Localization in Concave Regions

by Yinghui Meng, Qianying Zhi, Qiuwen Zhang and Ni Yao

Information 2020, 11(10), 488; https://doi.org/10.3390/info11100488 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1804

Abstract

At present, range-free localization algorithm is the mainstream of node localization method, which has made tremendous achievements. However, there are few algorithms that can be used in concave regions, and the existing algorithms have defects such as hop distance error, excessive time complexity [...] Read more.

At present, range-free localization algorithm is the mainstream of node localization method, which has made tremendous achievements. However, there are few algorithms that can be used in concave regions, and the existing algorithms have defects such as hop distance error, excessive time complexity and so on. To solve these problems, this paper proposes a two-stage PSO (Particle Swarm Optimization) algorithm for wireless sensor nodes localization in “concave regions”. In the first stage, it proposes a method of distance measuring based on similar path search and intersection ratio, and completes the initial localization of unknown nodes based on maximum likelihood estimation. In the second stage, the improved PSO algorithm is used to optimize the initial localization results in the previous stage. The experimental result shows that the localization error of this algorithm is always within 10% and the execution time is maintained at about 20 s when the communication radius and beacon node ratio is changing. Therefore, the algorithm can obtain high localization accuracy in wireless sensor network with “concave regions”, requiring low computing power for nodes, and energy consumption. Given this, it can greatly extend the service life of sensor nodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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Review

Jump to: Research

22 pages, 1214 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review on Network Protocol Design for Autonomic Internet of Things

by Riri Fitri Sari, Lukman Rosyidi, Bambang Susilo and Muhamad Asvial

Information 2021, 12(8), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/info12080292 - 22 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2646

Abstract

The autonomic Internet of Things is the creation of self-management capability in the Internet of Things system by embedding some autonomic properties, with the goal of freeing humans from all detail of the operation and management of the system. At same time, this [...] Read more.

The autonomic Internet of Things is the creation of self-management capability in the Internet of Things system by embedding some autonomic properties, with the goal of freeing humans from all detail of the operation and management of the system. At same time, this provides a system to always operate on the best performance. This paper presents a review of the recent studies related to the design of network communication protocol, which can support autonomic Internet of Things. Many of the studies come from the research and development in Wireless Sensor Network protocols, as it becomes one of the key technologies for the Internet of Things. The identified autonomic properties are self-organization, self-optimization, and self-protection. We review some protocols with the objective of energy consumption reduction and energy harvesting awareness, as it can support the self-energy-awareness property. As the result, the protocol designs are mapped according to each autonomic property supported, including protocols for MAC layer, protocols for clustering, protocols for routing, and protocols for security. This can be used to map the advances of communication protocol research for the autonomic Internet of Things and to identify the opportunities for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless IoT Network Protocols)

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