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Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia
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Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia

A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Global Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2021) | Viewed by 114647

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Peter Paal

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Hospitallers Brothers Hospital, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
Interests: accidental hypothermia; anaesthesiology; extreme environments; emergency medicine; mountain medicine; intensive care medicine; public health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Hermann Brugger

E-Mail Website
Assistant Guest Editor
Institute of Mountain Emergency Medicine, Eurac Research, 39100 Bolzano, Italy
Interests: accidental hypothermia; extreme environments; emergency medicine; mountain medicine; public health
Dr. Mathieu Pasquier

E-Mail Website
Assistant Guest Editor
Emergency Department, Lausanne University Hospital, CH-1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
Interests: accidental hypothermia; avalanche; emergency medicine; mountain medicine
Dr. Tomasz Darocha

E-Mail Website
Assistant Guest Editor
Severe Accidental Hypothermia Center, Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Medical University of Silesia, 40-007 Katowice, Poland
Interests: accidental hypothermia; anaesthesiology; intensive care medicine; emergency medicine; mountain medicine

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue will deal with a multitude of physiological and pathophysiological aspects of accidental and environmental hypothermia and cold injuries. The whole range of adaptations to cold, from the animal to the human, will be covered to elucidate adaptive mechanisms that may open new research and, hence, treatment options. Special attention will be paid to cooling in different environments (e.g., snow and water), insulation, diagnosis of hypothermia, rewarming, and prognostication of outcome after hypothermic cardiac arrest.

Dr. Peter Paal
Prof. Hermann Brugger
Dr. Mathieu Pasquier
Dr. Tomasz Darocha
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2500 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cardiopulmonary resuscitation
  • cold injury
  • freezing
  • heart arrest
  • hypothermia
  • resuscitation
  • rewarming

Published Papers (19 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 4422 KiB  
Article
AvaLife—A New Multi-Disciplinary Approach Supported by Accident and Field Test Data to Optimize Survival Chances in Rescue and First Aid of Avalanche Patients
by Manuel Genswein, Darryl Macias, Scott McIntosh, Ingrid Reiweger, Audun Hetland and Peter Paal
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5257; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095257 - 26 Apr 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2562
Abstract
Snow sports in the backcountry have seen a steep increase in popularity, and therefore preparedness for efficient companion and organized rescue is important. While technical rescue skills are widely taught, there is a lack of knowledge regarding first aid for avalanche patients. The [...] Read more.
Snow sports in the backcountry have seen a steep increase in popularity, and therefore preparedness for efficient companion and organized rescue is important. While technical rescue skills are widely taught, there is a lack of knowledge regarding first aid for avalanche patients. The stressful and time-critical situation for first responders requires a rule-based decision support tool. AvaLife has been designed from scratch, applying mathematical and statistical approaches including Monte Carlo simulations. New analysis of retrospective data and large prospective field test datasets were used to develop evidence-based algorithms exclusively for the avalanche rescue environment. AvaLife differs from other algorithms as it is not just a general-purpose CPR algorithm which has been slightly adapted for the avalanche patient. The sequence of actions, inclusion of the ≥150 cm burial depth triage criterion, advice to limit CPR duration for normothermic patients to 6 min in case of multiple burials and shortage of resources, criteria for using recovered subjects as a resource in the ongoing rescue, the adapted definition of “injuries incompatible with life”, reasoning behind the utmost importance of rescue breaths, as well as the updated BLS-iCPR algorithm make AvaLife useful in single and multiple burial rescue. AvaLife is available as a companion rescue basic life support (BLS) version for the recreational user and an advanced companion and organized rescue BLS version for guides, ski patrols and mountain rescuers. AvaLife allows seamless interoperability with advanced life support (ALS) qualified medical personnel arriving on site. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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9 pages, 673 KiB  
Article
Hypothermia Outcome Prediction after Extracorporeal Life Support for Hypothermic Cardiac Arrest Patients: Assessing the Performance of the HOPE Score in Case Reports from the Literature
by Nolan Grin, Valentin Rousson, Tomasz Darocha, Olivier Hugli, Pierre-Nicolas Carron, Tobias Zingg and Mathieu Pasquier
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 11896; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211896 - 12 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1999
Abstract
Aims: The hypothermia outcome prediction after extracorporeal life support (ECLS) score, or HOPE score, provides an estimate of the survival probability in hypothermic cardiac arrest patients undergoing ECLS rewarming. The aim of this study was to assess the performance of the HOPE [...] Read more.
Aims: The hypothermia outcome prediction after extracorporeal life support (ECLS) score, or HOPE score, provides an estimate of the survival probability in hypothermic cardiac arrest patients undergoing ECLS rewarming. The aim of this study was to assess the performance of the HOPE score in case reports from the literature. Methods: Cases were identified through a systematic review of the literature. We included cases of hypothermic cardiac arrest patients rewarmed with ECLS and not included in the HOPE derivation and validation studies. We calculated the survival probability of each patient according to the HOPE score. Results: A total of 70 patients were included. Most of them (62/70 = 89%) survived. The discrimination using the HOPE score was good (Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve = 0.78). The calibration was poor, with HOPE survival probabilities averaging 54%. Using a HOPE survival probability threshold of at least 10% as a decision criterion for rewarming a patient would have resulted in only five false positives and a single false negative, i.e., 64 (or 91%) correct decisions. Conclusions: In this highly selected sample, the HOPE score still had a good practical performance. The selection bias most likely explains the poor calibration found in the present study, with survivors being more often described in the literature than non-survivors. Our finding underscores the importance of working with a representative sample of patients when deriving and validating a score, as was the case in the HOPE studies that included only consecutive patients in order to minimize the risk of publication bias and lower the risk of overly optimistic outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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11 pages, 1266 KiB  
Article
Prognosis of Hypothermic Patients Undergoing ECLS Rewarming—Do Alterations in Biochemical Parameters Matter?
by Hubert Hymczak, Paweł Podsiadło, Sylweriusz Kosiński, Mathieu Pasquier, Konrad Mendrala, Damian Hudziak, Radosław Gocoł, Dariusz Plicner and Tomasz Darocha
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9764; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189764 - 16 Sep 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1694
Abstract
Background: While ECLS is a highly invasive procedure, the identification of patients with a potentially good prognosis is of high importance. The aim of this study was to analyse changes in the acid-base balance parameters and lactate kinetics during the early stages of [...] Read more.
Background: While ECLS is a highly invasive procedure, the identification of patients with a potentially good prognosis is of high importance. The aim of this study was to analyse changes in the acid-base balance parameters and lactate kinetics during the early stages of ECLS rewarming to determine predictors of clinical outcome. Methods: This single-centre retrospective study was conducted at the Severe Hypothermia Treatment Centre at John Paul II Hospital in Krakow, Poland. Patients ≥18 years old who had a core temperature (Tc) < 30 °C and were rewarmed with ECLS between December 2013 and August 2018 were included. Acid-base balance parameters were measured at ECLS implantation, at Tc 30 °C, and at 2 and 4 h after Tc 30 °C. The alteration in blood lactate kinetics was calculated as the percent change in serum lactate concentration relative to the baseline. Results: We included 50 patients, of which 36 (72%) were in cardiac arrest. The mean age was 56 ± 15 years old, and the mean Tc was 24.5 ± 12.6 °C. Twenty-one patients (42%) died. Lactate concentrations in the survivors group were significantly lower than in the non-survivors at all time points. In the survivors group, the mean lactate concentration decreased −2.42 ± 4.49 mmol/L from time of ECLS implantation until 4 h after reaching Tc 30 °C, while in the non-survivors’ group (p = 0.024), it increased 1.44 ± 6.41 mmol/L. Conclusions: Our results indicate that high lactate concentration is associated with a poor prognosis for hypothermic patients undergoing ECLS rewarming. A decreased value of lactate kinetics at 4 h after reaching 30 °C is also associated with a poor prognosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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9 pages, 841 KiB  
Article
Quality Indicators for Avalanche Victim Management and Rescue
by Alexandre Kottmann, Mathieu Pasquier, Giacomo Strapazzon, Ken Zafren, John Ellerton and Peter Paal
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9570; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189570 - 11 Sep 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1809
Abstract
Decisions in the management and rescue of avalanche victims are complex and must be made in difficult, sometimes dangerous, environments. Our goal was to identify indicators for quality measurement in the management and rescue of avalanche victims. The International Commission for Mountain Emergency [...] Read more.
Decisions in the management and rescue of avalanche victims are complex and must be made in difficult, sometimes dangerous, environments. Our goal was to identify indicators for quality measurement in the management and rescue of avalanche victims. The International Commission for Mountain Emergency Medicine (ICAR MedCom) convened a group of internal and external experts. We used brainstorming and a five-round modified nominal group technique to identify the most relevant quality indicators (QIs) according to the National Quality Forum Measure Evaluation Criteria. Using a consensus process, we identified a set of 23 QIs to measure the quality of the management and rescue of avalanche victims. These QIs may be a valuable tool for continuous quality improvement. They allow objective feedback to rescuers regarding clinical performance and identify areas that should be the foci of further quality improvement efforts in avalanche rescue. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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Review

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13 pages, 940 KiB  
Review
Prevention of Hypothermia in the Aftermath of Natural Disasters in Areas at Risk of Avalanches, Earthquakes, Tsunamis and Floods
by Kazue Oshiro, Yuichiro Tanioka, Jürg Schweizer, Ken Zafren, Hermann Brugger and Peter Paal
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(3), 1098; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031098 - 19 Jan 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3712
Abstract
Throughout history, accidental hypothermia has accompanied natural disasters in cold, temperate, and even subtropical regions. We conducted a non-systematic review of the causes and means of preventing accidental hypothermia after natural disasters caused by avalanches, earthquakes, tsunamis, and floods. Before a disaster occurs, [...] Read more.
Throughout history, accidental hypothermia has accompanied natural disasters in cold, temperate, and even subtropical regions. We conducted a non-systematic review of the causes and means of preventing accidental hypothermia after natural disasters caused by avalanches, earthquakes, tsunamis, and floods. Before a disaster occurs, preventive measures are required, such as accurate disaster risk analysis for given areas, hazard mapping and warning, protecting existing structures within hazard zones to the greatest extent possible, building structures outside hazard zones, and organising rapid and effective rescue. After the event, post hoc analyses of failures, and implementation of corrective actions will reduce the risk of accidental hypothermia in future disasters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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25 pages, 1686 KiB  
Review
Accidental Hypothermia: 2021 Update
by Peter Paal, Mathieu Pasquier, Tomasz Darocha, Raimund Lechner, Sylweriusz Kosinski, Bernd Wallner, Ken Zafren and Hermann Brugger
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(1), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010501 - 03 Jan 2022
Cited by 61 | Viewed by 13561
Abstract
Accidental hypothermia is an unintentional drop of core temperature below 35 °C. Annually, thousands die of primary hypothermia and an unknown number die of secondary hypothermia worldwide. Hypothermia can be expected in emergency patients in the prehospital phase. Injured and intoxicated patients cool [...] Read more.
Accidental hypothermia is an unintentional drop of core temperature below 35 °C. Annually, thousands die of primary hypothermia and an unknown number die of secondary hypothermia worldwide. Hypothermia can be expected in emergency patients in the prehospital phase. Injured and intoxicated patients cool quickly even in subtropical regions. Preventive measures are important to avoid hypothermia or cooling in ill or injured patients. Diagnosis and assessment of the risk of cardiac arrest are based on clinical signs and core temperature measurement when available. Hypothermic patients with risk factors for imminent cardiac arrest (temperature < 30 °C in young and healthy patients and <32 °C in elderly persons, or patients with multiple comorbidities), ventricular dysrhythmias, or systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg) and hypothermic patients who are already in cardiac arrest, should be transferred directly to an extracorporeal life support (ECLS) centre. If a hypothermic patient arrests, continuous cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be performed. In hypothermic patients, the chances of survival and good neurological outcome are higher than for normothermic patients for witnessed, unwitnessed and asystolic cardiac arrest. Mechanical CPR devices should be used for prolonged rescue, if available. In severely hypothermic patients in cardiac arrest, if continuous or mechanical CPR is not possible, intermittent CPR should be used. Rewarming can be accomplished by passive and active techniques. Most often, passive and active external techniques are used. Only in patients with refractory hypothermia or cardiac arrest are internal rewarming techniques required. ECLS rewarming should be performed with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). A post-resuscitation care bundle should complement treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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17 pages, 947 KiB  
Review
The Effect of Therapeutic Hypothermia after Cardiac Arrest on the Neurological Outcome and Survival—A Systematic Review of RCTs Published between 2016 and 2020
by Christian Colls Garrido, Blanca Riquelme Gallego, Juan Carlos Sánchez García, Jonathan Cortés Martín, María Montiel Troya and Raquel Rodríguez Blanque
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 11817; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211817 - 11 Nov 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3513
Abstract
Therapeutic hypothermia is a treatment used for patients who have suffered cardiorespiratory arrest and remain conscious after the recovery of spontaneous circulation. However, its effectiveness is controversial. The objective of this systematic review is to summarize the scientific evidence available about the effect [...] Read more.
Therapeutic hypothermia is a treatment used for patients who have suffered cardiorespiratory arrest and remain conscious after the recovery of spontaneous circulation. However, its effectiveness is controversial. The objective of this systematic review is to summarize the scientific evidence available about the effect of therapeutic hypothermia on neurological status and survival in this type of patients. Methodology: A primary search in CINAHL, CUIDEN, Pubmed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases was carried out. Randomized clinical trials (RCT) published from 2016 to 2020 were selected. Results: 17 studies were selected for inclusion and most relevant data were extracted. Methodological quality was assessed by the RoB tool. Conclusions: Although therapeutic hypothermia is a safe technique with few adverse and manageable effects, it has not shown to improve survival rate and neurological status of adult nor pediatric patients. It is possible that its positive effect on neuroprotection could be achieved only by preventing hyperthermia although further investigation is needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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14 pages, 1712 KiB  
Review
Pediatric Hypothermia: An Ambiguous Issue
by Dominique Singer
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(21), 11484; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111484 - 31 Oct 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6168
Abstract
Hypothermia in pediatrics is mainly about small body size. The key thermal factor here is the large surface-to-volume ratio. Although small mammals, including human infants and children, are adapted to higher heat losses through their elevated metabolic rate and thermogenic capacity, they are [...] Read more.
Hypothermia in pediatrics is mainly about small body size. The key thermal factor here is the large surface-to-volume ratio. Although small mammals, including human infants and children, are adapted to higher heat losses through their elevated metabolic rate and thermogenic capacity, they are still at risk of hypothermia because of a small regulatory range and an impending metabolic exhaustion. However, some small mammalian species (hibernators) use reduced metabolic rates and lowered body temperatures as adaptations to impaired energy supply. Similar to nature, hypothermia has contradictory effects in clinical pediatrics as well: In neonates, it is a serious risk factor affecting respiratory adaptation in term and developmental outcome in preterm infants. On the other hand, it is an important self-protective response to neonatal hypoxia and an evidence-based treatment option for asphyxiated babies. In children, hypothermia first enabled the surgical repair of congenital heart defects and promotes favorable outcome after ice water drowning. Yet, it is also a major threat in various prehospital and clinical settings and has no proven therapeutic benefit in pediatric critical care. All in all, pediatric hypothermia is an ambiguous issue whose harmful or beneficial effects strongly depend on the particular circumstances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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9 pages, 639 KiB  
Review
Nonfreezing Cold Injury (Trench Foot)
by Ken Zafren
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(19), 10482; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910482 - 06 Oct 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6663
Abstract
Nonfreezing cold injury (NFCI) is a modern term for trench foot or immersion foot. Moisture is required to produce a NFCI. NFCI seldom, if ever, results in loss of tissue unless there is also pressure necrosis or infection. Much of the published material [...] Read more.
Nonfreezing cold injury (NFCI) is a modern term for trench foot or immersion foot. Moisture is required to produce a NFCI. NFCI seldom, if ever, results in loss of tissue unless there is also pressure necrosis or infection. Much of the published material regarding management of NFCIs has been erroneously borrowed from the literature on warm water immersion injuries. NFCI is a clinical diagnosis. Most patients with NFCI have a history of losing feeling for at least 30 min and having pain or abnormal sensation on rewarming. Limbs with NFCI usually pass through four ‘stages.’ cold exposure, post-exposure (prehyperaemic), hyperaemic, and posthyperaemic. Limbs with NFCI should be cooled gradually and kept cool. Amitriptyline is likely the most effective medication for pain relief. If prolonged exposure to wet, cold conditions cannot be avoided, the most effective measures to prevent NFCI are to stay active, wear adequate clothing, stay well-nourished, and change into dry socks at least daily. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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12 pages, 1111 KiB  
Review
On-Site Medical Management of Avalanche Victims—A Narrative Review
by Simon Rauch, Giacomo Strapazzon and Hermann Brugger
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(19), 10234; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910234 - 29 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3132
Abstract
Avalanche accidents are common in mountain regions and approximately 100 fatalities are counted in Europe each year. The average mortality rate is about 25% and survival chances are mainly determined by the degree and duration of avalanche burial, the patency of the airway, [...] Read more.
Avalanche accidents are common in mountain regions and approximately 100 fatalities are counted in Europe each year. The average mortality rate is about 25% and survival chances are mainly determined by the degree and duration of avalanche burial, the patency of the airway, the presence of an air pocket, snow characteristics, and the severity of traumatic injuries. The most common cause of death in completely buried avalanche victims is asphyxia followed by trauma. Hypothermia accounts for a minority of deaths; however, hypothermic cardiac arrest has a favorable prognosis and prolonged resuscitation and extracorporeal rewarming are indicated. In this article, we give an overview on the pathophysiology and on-site management of avalanche victims. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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22 pages, 475 KiB  
Review
Practicing Sport in Cold Environments: Practical Recommendations to Improve Sport Performance and Reduce Negative Health Outcomes
by Hannes Gatterer, Tobias Dünnwald, Rachel Turner, Robert Csapo, Wolfgang Schobersberger, Martin Burtscher, Martin Faulhaber and Michael D. Kennedy
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9700; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189700 - 15 Sep 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 9721
Abstract
Although not a barrier to perform sport, cold weather environments (low ambient temperature, high wind speeds, and increased precipitation, i.e., rain/water/snow) may influence sport performance. Despite the obvious requirement for practical recommendations and guidelines to better facilitate training and competition in such cold [...] Read more.
Although not a barrier to perform sport, cold weather environments (low ambient temperature, high wind speeds, and increased precipitation, i.e., rain/water/snow) may influence sport performance. Despite the obvious requirement for practical recommendations and guidelines to better facilitate training and competition in such cold environments, the current scientific evidence-base is lacking. Nonetheless, this review summarizes the current available knowledge specifically related to the physiological impact of cold exposure, in an attempt to provide practitioners and coaches alike with practical recommendations to minimize any potential negative performance effects, mitigate health issues, and best optimize athlete preparation across various sporting disciplines. Herein, the review is split into sections which explore some of the key physiological effects of cold exposure on performance (i.e., endurance exercise capacity and explosive athletic power), potential health issues (short-term and long-term), and what is currently known with regard to best preparation or mitigation strategies considered to negate the potential negative effects of cold on performance. Specific focus is given to “winter” sports that are usually completed in cold environments and practical recommendations for physical preparation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
16 pages, 1705 KiB  
Review
Long-Term Sequelae of Frostbite—A Scoping Review
by Ivo B. Regli, Giacomo Strapazzon, Marika Falla, Rosmarie Oberhammer and Hermann Brugger
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9655; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189655 - 14 Sep 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7692
Abstract
Frostbite is tissue damage caused by freezing temperatures and constitutes an important cause of morbidity in cold climate zones and high altitude. The direct effects of sub-zero temperatures lead to tissue freezing, electrolyte shifts and pH alterations, microvascular damage, and eventually to cell [...] Read more.
Frostbite is tissue damage caused by freezing temperatures and constitutes an important cause of morbidity in cold climate zones and high altitude. The direct effects of sub-zero temperatures lead to tissue freezing, electrolyte shifts and pH alterations, microvascular damage, and eventually to cell death. Upon rewarming, inflammatory reperfusion injury and thrombosis may lead to further tissue damage. Several studies and various case reports show that many patients suffer from long-term sequelae such as vasomotor disturbances (associated with susceptibility to refreezing), and neuropathic and nociceptive pain, as well as damage to skeletal structures. There are still many uncertainties regarding the pathophysiology of these sequelae. It has been shown that the transient receptor potential channel (TRP) family plays a role in cold allodynia. Botulinum Toxin type A (BTX-A) injections have been reported to be beneficial in vasomotor and neuropathic disturbances secondary to frostbite. Epidural sympathetic block has been used for short-term treatment of frostbite induced chronic pain. Furthermore, amitriptyline, gabapentinoids, and duloxetine may have some benefits. Frostbite arthritis clinically resembles regular osteoarthritis. In children there is a risk of epiphyseal cartilage damage leading to bone deformities. Despite some promising therapeutic concepts, the scarcity of data on frostbite long-term sequelae in the literature indicates the need of more in-depth studies of this pathology in all its aspects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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15 pages, 781 KiB  
Review
Perioperative Hypothermia—A Narrative Review
by Simon Rauch, Clemens Miller, Anselm Bräuer, Bernd Wallner, Matthias Bock and Peter Paal
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(16), 8749; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168749 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 10681
Abstract
Unintentional hypothermia (core temperature < 36 °C) is a common side effect in patients undergoing surgery. Several patient-centred and external factors, e.g., drugs, comorbidities, trauma, environmental temperature, type of anaesthesia, as well as extent and duration of surgery, influence core temperature. Perioperative hypothermia [...] Read more.
Unintentional hypothermia (core temperature < 36 °C) is a common side effect in patients undergoing surgery. Several patient-centred and external factors, e.g., drugs, comorbidities, trauma, environmental temperature, type of anaesthesia, as well as extent and duration of surgery, influence core temperature. Perioperative hypothermia has negative effects on coagulation, blood loss and transfusion requirements, metabolization of drugs, surgical site infections, and discharge from the post-anaesthesia care unit. Therefore, active temperature management is required in the pre-, intra-, and postoperative period to diminish the risks of perioperative hypothermia. Temperature measurement should be done with accurate and continuous probes. Perioperative temperature management includes a bundle of warming tools adapted to individual needs and local circumstances. Warming blankets and mattresses as well as the administration of properly warmed infusions via dedicated devices are important for this purpose. Temperature management should follow checklists and be individualized to the patient’s requirements and the local possibilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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18 pages, 3050 KiB  
Review
Perioperative Hypothermia in Children
by Marcus Nemeth, Clemens Miller and Anselm Bräuer
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(14), 7541; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147541 - 15 Jul 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5617
Abstract
Background: First described by paediatric anaesthesiologists, perioperative hypothermia is one of the earliest reported side effects of general anaesthesia. Deviations from normothermia are associated with numerous complications and adverse outcomes, with infants and small children at the highest risk. Nowadays, maintenance of normothermia [...] Read more.
Background: First described by paediatric anaesthesiologists, perioperative hypothermia is one of the earliest reported side effects of general anaesthesia. Deviations from normothermia are associated with numerous complications and adverse outcomes, with infants and small children at the highest risk. Nowadays, maintenance of normothermia is an important quality metric in paediatric anaesthesia. Methods: This review is based on our collection of publications regarding perioperative hypothermia and was supplemented with pertinent publications from a MEDLINE literature search. Results: We provide an overview on perioperative hypothermia in the paediatric patient, including definition, history, incidence, development, monitoring, risk factors, and adverse events, and provide management recommendations for its prevention. We also summarize the side effects and complications of perioperative temperature management. Conclusions: Perioperative hypothermia is still common in paediatric patients and may be attributed to their vulnerable physiology, but also may result from insufficient perioperative warming. An effective perioperative warming strategy incorporates the maintenance of normothermia during transportation, active warming before induction of anaesthesia, active warming during anaesthesia and surgery, and accurate measurement of core temperature. Perioperative temperature management must also prevent hyperthermia in children. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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14 pages, 1245 KiB  
Review
The Role of Deep Hypothermia in Cardiac Surgery
by Radosław Gocoł, Damian Hudziak, Jarosław Bis, Konrad Mendrala, Łukasz Morkisz, Paweł Podsiadło, Sylweriusz Kosiński, Jacek Piątek and Tomasz Darocha
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(13), 7061; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18137061 - 01 Jul 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7690
Abstract
Hypothermia is defined as a decrease in body core temperature to below 35 °C. In cardiac surgery, four stages of hypothermia are distinguished: mild, moderate, deep, and profound. The organ protection offered by deep hypothermia (DH) enables safe circulatory arrest as a prerequisite [...] Read more.
Hypothermia is defined as a decrease in body core temperature to below 35 °C. In cardiac surgery, four stages of hypothermia are distinguished: mild, moderate, deep, and profound. The organ protection offered by deep hypothermia (DH) enables safe circulatory arrest as a prerequisite to carrying out cardiac surgical intervention. In adult cardiac surgery, DH is mainly used in aortic arch surgery, surgical treatment of pulmonary embolism, and acute type-A aortic dissection interventions. In surgery treating congenital defects, DH is used to assist aortic arch reconstructions, hypoplastic left heart syndrome interventions, and for multi-stage treatment of infants with a single heart ventricle during the neonatal period. However, it should be noted that a safe duration of circulatory arrest in DH for the central nervous system is 30 to 40 min at most and should not be exceeded to prevent severe neurological adverse events. Personalized therapy for the patient and adequate blood temperature monitoring, glycemia, hematocrit, pH, and cerebral oxygenation is a prerequisite and indispensable part of DH. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

8 pages, 309 KiB  
Opinion
Core Temperature Measurement—Principles of Correct Measurement, Problems, and Complications
by Hubert Hymczak, Aleksandra Gołąb, Konrad Mendrala, Dariusz Plicner, Tomasz Darocha, Paweł Podsiadło, Damian Hudziak, Radosław Gocoł and Sylweriusz Kosiński
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(20), 10606; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010606 - 10 Oct 2021
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 5987
Abstract
Core temperature reflects the temperature of the internal organs. Proper temperature measurement is essential to diagnose and treat temperature impairment in patients. However, an accurate approach has yet to be established. Depending on the method used, the obtained values may vary and differ [...] Read more.
Core temperature reflects the temperature of the internal organs. Proper temperature measurement is essential to diagnose and treat temperature impairment in patients. However, an accurate approach has yet to be established. Depending on the method used, the obtained values may vary and differ from the actual core temperature. There is an ongoing debate regarding the most appropriate anatomical site for core temperature measurement. Although the measurement of body core temperature through a pulmonary artery catheter is commonly cited as the gold standard, the esophageal temperature measurement appears to be a reasonable and functional alternative in the clinical setting. This article provides an integrative review of invasive and noninvasive body temperature measurements and their relations to core temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
15 pages, 2499 KiB  
Systematic Review
The Effect of Cold Exposure on Cognitive Performance in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review
by Marika Falla, Alessandro Micarelli, Katharina Hüfner and Giacomo Strapazzon
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9725; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189725 - 15 Sep 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7985
Abstract
Several aspects of cognition can be affected after cold exposure, but contradictory results have been reported regarding affected cognitive domains. The aim of the current systematic review was to evaluate the effects of specific cold exposure on cognitive performance in healthy subjects. A [...] Read more.
Several aspects of cognition can be affected after cold exposure, but contradictory results have been reported regarding affected cognitive domains. The aim of the current systematic review was to evaluate the effects of specific cold exposure on cognitive performance in healthy subjects. A systematic search was performed using MEDLINE (through PubMed), EMBASE (Scopus) and PsycINFO databases according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Inclusion criteria were healthy subjects exposed to a cold environment (either simulated or not) and cognitive performance related to cold exposure with an experimental design. The literature search identified 18 studies, eight studies investigated the effect of cold air exposure and ten the effect of cold water immersion on cognitive performance of healthy subjects. There were several differences among the studies (environmental temperature reached, time of exposure, timing, and type of cognitive test administration). Cold exposure induced in most of the experimental settings (15 of 18) an impairment of CP even before accidental hypothermia was established. The most investigated and affected cognitive domains were attention and processing speed, executive function, and memory. Gender differences and effects of repeated exposure and possible acclimation on cognitive performance need further studies to be confirmed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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11 pages, 1455 KiB  
Viewpoint
The Efficacy of Renal Replacement Therapy for Rewarming of Patients in Severe Accidental Hypothermia—Systematic Review of the Literature
by Konrad Mendrala, Sylweriusz Kosiński, Paweł Podsiadło, Mathieu Pasquier, Peter Paal, Piotr Mazur and Tomasz Darocha
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9638; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189638 - 13 Sep 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2104
Abstract
Background: Renal replacement therapy (RRT) can be used to rewarm patients in deep hypothermia. However, there is still no clear evidence for the effectiveness of RRT in this group of patients. This systematic review aims to summarize the rewarming rates during RRT in [...] Read more.
Background: Renal replacement therapy (RRT) can be used to rewarm patients in deep hypothermia. However, there is still no clear evidence for the effectiveness of RRT in this group of patients. This systematic review aims to summarize the rewarming rates during RRT in patients in severe hypothermia, below or equal to 32 °C. Methods: This systematic review was registered in the PROSPERO International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (identifier CRD42021232821). We searched Embase, Medline, and Cochrane databases using the keywords hypothermia, renal replacement therapy, hemodialysis, hemofiltration, hemodiafiltration, and their abbreviations. The search included only articles in English with no time limit, up until 30 June 2021. Results: From the 795 revised articles, 18 studies including 21 patients, were selected for the final assessment and data extraction. The mean rate of rewarming calculated for all studies combined was 1.9 °C/h (95% CI 1.5–2.3) and did not differ between continuous (2.0 °C/h; 95% CI 0.9–3.0) and intermittent (1.9 °C/h; 95% CI 1.5–2.3) methods (p > 0.9). Conclusions: Based on the reviewed literature, it is currently not possible to provide high-quality recommendations for RRT use in specific groups of patients in accidental hypothermia. While RRT appears to be a viable rewarming strategy, the choice of rewarming method should always be determined by the specific clinical circumstances, the available resources, and the current resuscitation guidelines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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7 pages, 309 KiB  
Viewpoint
Hypothermia in Trauma
by Michiel J. van Veelen and Monika Brodmann Maeder
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(16), 8719; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168719 - 18 Aug 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8757
Abstract
Hypothermia in trauma patients is a common condition. It is aggravated by traumatic hemorrhage, which leads to hypovolemic shock. This hypovolemic shock results in a lethal triad of hypothermia, coagulopathy, and acidosis, leading to ongoing bleeding. Additionally, hypothermia in trauma patients can deepen [...] Read more.
Hypothermia in trauma patients is a common condition. It is aggravated by traumatic hemorrhage, which leads to hypovolemic shock. This hypovolemic shock results in a lethal triad of hypothermia, coagulopathy, and acidosis, leading to ongoing bleeding. Additionally, hypothermia in trauma patients can deepen through environmental exposure on the scene or during transport and medical procedures such as infusions and airway management. This vicious circle has a detrimental effect on the outcome of major trauma patients. This narrative review describes the main factors to consider in the co-existing condition of trauma and hypothermia from a prehospital and emergency medical perspective. Early prehospital recognition and staging of hypothermia are crucial to triage to proper care to improve survival. Treatment of hypothermia should start in an early stage, especially the prevention of further cooling in the prehospital setting and during the primary assessment. On the one hand, active rewarming is the treatment of choice of hypothermia-induced coagulation disorder in trauma patients; on the other hand, accidental or clinically induced hypothermia might improve outcomes by protecting against the effects of hypoperfusion and hypoxic injury in selected cases such as patients suffering from traumatic brain injury (TBI) or traumatic cardiac arrest. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accidental and Environmental Hypothermia)
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