Special Issue "Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running"

Complexity of Running and Its Relationship with Joint Kinematics during a Prolonged Run

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24 pages, 5360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Siddhartha Bikram Panday

Prabhat Pathak

Jeheon Moon

and

Dohoon Koo

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(15), 9656; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159656 - 05 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1541

Abstract

We investigated the effect of prolonged running on joint kinematics and its association with stride complexity between novice and elite runners. Ten elite marathoners and eleven healthy individuals took part in a 20 min submaximal prolonged running experiment at their preferred running speed (PRS). A three-dimensional motion capture system was utilized to capture and calculate the alpha exponent, stride-to-stride fluctuations (SSFs), and stride-to-stride variability (SSV) of spatiotemporal parameters and joint kinematics. In the results, the elite athletes ran at a considerably higher PRS than the novice runners, yet no significant differences were found in respiratory exchange ratio with increasing time intervals. For the spatiotemporal parameters, we observed a significant increase in the step width and length variability in novice runners with increasing time-interval (p < 0.05). However, we did not observe any differences in the alpha exponent of spatiotemporal parameters. Significant differences in SSF of joint kinematics were observed, particularly in the sagittal plane for ankle, knee, and hip at heel strike (p < 0.05). While in mid-stance, time-interval differences were observed in novices who ran with a lower knee flexion angle (p < 0.05). During toe-off, significantly higher SSV was observed, particularly in the hip and ankle for novices (p < 0.05). The correlation analysis of joint SSV revealed a distinct negative relationship with the alpha exponent of step-length and step-width for elite runners, while, for novices, a positive relation was observed only for the alpha exponent of step-width. In conclusion, our study shows that increased step-width variability seen in novices could be a compensatory mechanism to maintain performance and mitigate the loss of stability. On the other hand, elite runners showed a training-induced effective modulation of lower-limb kinematics to improve their running performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

Using Musical Feedback Increases Stride Frequency in Recreational Runners

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11 pages, 1201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sergio Sellés-Pérez

Lara Eza-Casajús

José Fernández-Sáez

Miguel Martínez-Moreno

and

Roberto Cejuela

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(7), 3870; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073870 - 24 Mar 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2684

Abstract

The number of participants in popular races has increased in recent years, with most of them being amateurs. In addition, it has been observed that there is a high percentage of injuries among them, and some of these injuries may be related to a low stride frequency. The aim of this research was to check if a continuous running training program with a musical base improves the stride frequency of popular runners. For this purpose, the effect of a 6 week continuous running training program with the help of a musical track with a constant rhythm that was 10% higher than the preferred stride frequency of the subjects was analyzed and compared to a control group that performed the continuous running training without sound stimuli. Significant increases were found in the evolution of stride frequency in the experimental group between the pre- and post-test (p = 0.002). No significant changes were observed in the stride frequency of the control group. These results show that training with music feedback helps to improve stride frequency in recreational runners. Future research should study the evolution of the improvement obtained in time as it is unknown if the increase in stride rate has been integrated in the runner’s technique, making the improvement obtained permanent. Future research is needed to confirm these results by enlarging the sample and carrying out an exhaustive biomechanical study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

The Post-Activation Potentiation Effects on Sprinting Abilities in Junior Tennis Players

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11 pages, 525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Luis Miguel Fernández-Galván

Pablo Prieto-González

Jorge Sánchez-Infante

and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(4), 2080; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042080 - 13 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2357

Abstract

Objective: This study aimed to compare the acute effects of a full squat (SQ) or hip thrust (HT) with two different loading intensities (60% and 85% 1 RM) on sprint ability in junior male tennis players. Methods: Nineteen tennis players were included in this research. They underwent four different experimental conditions: HT at 60% 1 RM, HT at 85% 1 RM, SQ at 60% 1 RM, or SQ at 85%. The force–velocity (F–V) profile was used to assess tennis players’ sprint acceleration ability before and after applying the conditioning stimulus. The variables registered were as follows: 5 m test (5 m), 10 m test (10 m), maximum theoretical force (F₀), maximum power (P_max), and the maximal ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RF_peak). Results: Significant improvements in 5 m, P_max, and RF_peak were observed when the conditioning stimulus was performing one set of seven reps of HT at 60% 1 RM. When the activation protocol was one set of seven reps of SQ at 60% 1 RM, significant improvements in 5 m, 10 m, F₀, P_max (N), and RF_peak were detected. Additionally, performing one set of three reps of SQ at 85% 1 RM as an activation protocol provided significant improvements in F₀. Conclusion: The use of HT and SQ with a load of 60% 1 RM improved the sprint F–V profile components related to the acceleration phase of the sprint in junior tennis players. Using intensity loads of 85% 1 RM is not adequate to increase acute sprint performance in this population. HT presents a higher transferability to sprinting in the first 5 m of sprinting, whereas SQ provides acute improvements in different sprinting phases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

Anaerobic Speed Reserve, Sprint Force–Velocity Profile, Kinematic Characteristics, and Jump Ability among Elite Male Speed- and Endurance-Adapted Milers

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11 pages, 344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Juan A. Párraga-Montilla

Natalia Romero-Franco

and

Sprint Performance and Mechanical Force-Velocity Profile among Different Maturational Stages in Young Soccer Players

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(3), 1447; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031447 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2844

Abstract

This study aimed to compare sprint, jump performance, and sprint mechanical variables between endurance-adapted milers (EAM, specialized in 1500–3000-m) and speed-adapted milers (SAM, specialized in 800–1500 m) and to examine the relationships between maximal sprint speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), sprint, jump performance, and sprint mechanical characteristics of elite middle-distance runners. Fifteen participants (8 EAM; 7 SAM) were evaluated to obtain their maximal aerobic speed, sprint mechanical characteristics (force–velocity profile and kinematic variables), jump, and sprint performance. SAM displayed greater MSS, ASR, horizontal jump, sprint performance, and mechanical ability than EAM (p < 0.05). SAM also showed higher stiffness in the 40-m sprint (p = 0.026) and a higher ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RF) at 10 m (p = 0.003) and RFpeak (p = 0.024). MSS and ASR correlated with horizontal (r = 0.76) and vertical (r = 0.64) jumps, all sprint split times (r ≤ −0.85), stiffness (r = 0.86), and mechanical characteristics (r ≥ 0.56) during the 100-m sprint, and physical qualities during acceleration (r ≥ 0.66) and sprint mechanical effectiveness from the force–velocity profile (r ≥ 0.69). Season-best times in the 800 m were significantly correlated with MSS (r = −0.86). Sprint ability has a crucial relevance in middle-distance runners’ performance, especially for SAM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

11 pages, 559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Luis Miguel Fernández-Galván

and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(3), 1412; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031412 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3027

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to determine the influence of maturation status on the components of the sprint force-velocity (F-V) profile in young soccer players. Sixty-two young male soccer players from the same professional soccer academy took part in the present study. A cross-sectional design was implemented to compare the main components of the sprint F-V profile (i.e., maximal theoretical force (F₀), velocity (V₀), power (P_max), and ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RF_peak), and decrease in the ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (DRF)) and sprint performance (5, 20, and 30 m sprint time) among participants’ maturation stages (i.e., pre-, mid- and post-peak height velocity (PHV) groups). The results show that the ES of differences in 5 min sprint performance, F₀, and RF_peak (i.e., strength- and acceleration-related components of the sprint F-V profile) were greater between pre- and mid-PHV groups than those between mid- and post-PHV groups (i.e., large and very large effects (1.24 ≤ ES ≤ 2.42) vs. moderate, small, and zero effects (0 ≤ ES ≤ 0.69), respectively). However, the ES of differences in V₀ and DRF (i.e., peak speed-related components of the sprint F-V profile) were greater between mid- and post-PHV groups than those between pre- and mid-PHV groups (i.e., large effects (1.54 ≤ ES ≤ 1.92) vs. moderate effects (−0.59 ≤ ES ≤ 1), respectively). Once the strength development is achieved to a great extent from the pre- to mid-PHV groups, specific strength training methods may be used for young soccer players to improve their sprint performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

Examination of the Sprinting and Jumping Force-Velocity Profiles in Young Soccer Players at Different Maturational Stages

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11 pages, 738 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Luis Miguel Fernández-Galván

Daniel Boullosa

and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4646; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094646 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2609

Abstract

The aim was to determine the relationships among components of the force-velocity (F-V) profiles in jumping and sprinting, with both biological and chronological ages in 89 young soccer players belonging to categories from U10 to U18. Participants performed countermovement jumps (CMJ) and 20-m sprint tests. F-V components assessed were associated with both maturity offset and chronological age, using correlation and multiple linear regression analyses. Horizontal (i.e., maximal theoretical force [F₀] and velocity [V₀], maximal power [P_max] and F-V slope) and vertical (i.e., [F₀] and [P_max]) F-V components displayed very large correlations (i.e., 0.79 ≤ r ≤ 0.92) with both chronological age and maturity offset. The combination of sprinting P_max and training experience and jumping F₀ and training experience explained up to 94% of the variances in maturity offset and chronological age. Furthermore, similar correlations were found between sprinting and jumping performances, and components of the F-V profiles, and both maturity offset and chronological age. Identification of vertical jump and sprint mechanical determinants may assist in strengthening those components of the F-V profile which are weaker throughout the training process. Sprinting and jumping capabilities can be indistinctly monitored with respect to their chronological age or maturity offset in young soccer players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

Differentiating Endurance-and Speed-Adapted Types of Elite and World Class Milers According to Biomechanical, Pacing and Perceptual Responses during a Sprint Interval Session

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10 pages, 721 KiB

Open AccessArticle

José Carlos Jaenes-Sánchez

Andrew Renfree

and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2448; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052448 - 02 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2111

Abstract

The aim was to compare pacing, biomechanical and perceptual responses between elite speed-and endurance-adapted milers during a sprint interval training session (SIT). Twenty elite and world-class middle-distance runners (male: n = 16, female: n = 4; 24.95 ± 5.18 years; 60.89 ± 7 kg) were classified as either speed- or endurance-adapted milers according to their recent performances at 800 m or longer races than 1500 m (10 subjects per group). Participants performed 10 repetitions of 100 m sprints with 2 min of active recovery between each, and performance, perceptual and biomechanical responses were collected. The difference between accumulated times of the last and the first five repetitions was higher in speed-adapted milers (ES = 1.07) displaying a more positive pacing strategy. A higher coefficient of variation (CV%) was displayed across the session by speed-adapted milers in average repetition time, contact time, and affective valence (ES ≥ 1.15). Speed-adapted milers experienced lower rates of valence after the 4th repetition excepting at the 8th repetition (ES ≥ 0.99). Speed-adapted milers may need to display a more positive pacing profile than endurance-adapted milers and, therefore, would experience lower levels of affective valence and a more rapid increase of ground contact time during a SIT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

Does Arch Stiffness Influence Running Spatiotemporal Parameters? An Analysis of the Relationship between Influencing Factors on Running Performance

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9 pages, 346 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Felipe García-Pinillos

Diego Jaén-Carrillo

Pedro Ángel Latorre-Román

Carles Escalona-Marfil

Víctor M. Soto-Hermoso

Carlos Lago-Fuentes

Silvia Pueyo-Villa

Irma Domínguez-Azpíroz

and

Luis E. Roche-Seruendo

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2437; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052437 - 02 Mar 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2160

Abstract

This study aimed to determine the influence of arch stiffness on running spatiotemporal parameters at a common speed for a wide range of endurance runners (i.e., 12 km·h⁻¹). In total, 97 runners, 52 men and 45 women, completed a treadmill running protocol at 12 km·h⁻¹. Spatiotemporal parameters were measured using the OptoGait system, and foot structure was assessed by determining arch stiffness. Since between-sex differences were found in anthropometric and foot structure variables, data analysis was conducted separately for men and women, and body mass and height were considered as covariates. For both sexes, a k-means cluster analysis grouped participants according to arch stiffness, by obtaining a group of low-arch stiffness (LAS group) and a group of high-arch stiffness (HAS group), with significant differences in arch stiffness (p < 0.001, for both men and women). No significant differences between LAS and HAS groups were found in running spatiotemporal parameters, regardless of sex (p ≥ 0.05). For both sexes, the partial correlation analysis reported no significant correlations (p ≥ 0.05) between foot structure variables and running spatiotemporal parameters. The results obtained show no differences in spatiotemporal gait characteristics during running at submaximal velocity between runners with low-arch stiffness and those with high-arch stiffness, regardless of sex. These findings may have important implications for clinicians and coaches by adding more evidence to the debate about the use of static foot classification measures when characterizing the foot and its biomechanics during running. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

6 pages, 619 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effect of Running Velocity Variation on the Aerobic Cost of Running

and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(4), 2025; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042025 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2134

Abstract

The aerobic cost of running (CR), an important determinant of running performance, is usually measured during constant speed running. However, constant speed does not adequately reflect the nature of human locomotion, particularly competitive races, which include stochastic variations in pace. Studies in non-athletic individuals suggest that stochastic variations in running velocity produce little change in CR. This study was designed to evaluate whether variations in running speed influence CR in trained runners. Twenty competitive runners (12 m, VO_2max = 73 ± 7 mL/kg; 8f, VO_2max = 57 ± 6 mL/kg) ran four 6-minute bouts at an average speed calculated to require ~90% ventilatory threshold (VT) (measured using both v-slope and ventilatory equivalent). Each interval was run with minute-to-minute pace variation around average speed. CR was measured over the last 2 min. The coefficient of variation (CV) of running speed was calculated to quantify pace variations: ±0.0 m∙s⁻¹ (CV = 0%), ±0.04 m∙s⁻¹ (CV = 1.4%), ±0.13 m∙s⁻¹(CV = 4.2%), and ±0.22 m∙s⁻¹(CV = 7%). No differences in CR, HR, or blood lactate (BLa) were found amongst the variations in running pace. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was significantly higher only in the 7% CV condition. The results support earlier studies with short term (3s) pace variations, that pace variation within the limits often seen in competitive races did not affect CR when measured at running speeds below VT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

Does Lactate-Guided Threshold Interval Training within a High-Volume Low-Intensity Approach Represent the “Next Step” in the Evolution of Distance Running Training?

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

15 pages, 2641 KiB

Open AccessReview

and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(5), 3782; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053782 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 35231

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to describe a novel training model based on lactate-guided threshold interval training (LGTIT) within a high-volume, low-intensity approach, which characterizes the training pattern in some world-class middle- and long-distance runners and to review the potential physiological mechanisms explaining its effectiveness. This training model consists of performing three to four LGTIT sessions and one VO_2max intensity session weekly. In addition, low intensity running is performed up to an overall volume of 150–180 km/week. During LGTIT sessions, the training pace is dictated by a blood lactate concentration target (i.e., internal rather than external training load), typically ranging from 2 to 4.5 mmol·L⁻¹, measured every one to three repetitions. That intensity may allow for a more rapid recovery through a lower central and peripheral fatigue between high-intensity sessions compared with that of greater intensities and, therefore, a greater weekly volume of these specific workouts. The interval character of LGTIT allows for the achievement of high absolute training speeds and, thus, maximizing the number of motor units recruited, despite a relatively low metabolic intensity (i.e., threshold zone). This model may increase the mitochondrial proliferation through the optimization of both calcium and adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)

Exploratory Analysis of Sprint Force-Velocity Characteristics, Kinematics and Performance across a Periodized Training Year: A Case Study of Two National Level Sprint Athletes

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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

16 pages, 3602 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Dylan Shaun Hicks

Claire Drummond

Kym J. Williams

and

Roland van den Tillaar

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(22), 15404; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215404 - 21 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1953

Abstract

Objective: This case study aimed to explore changes to sprint force-velocity characteristics across a periodized training year (45 weeks) and the influence on sprint kinematics and performance in national level 100-meter athletes. Force-velocity characteristics have been shown to differentiate between performance levels in sprint athletes, yet limited information exists describing how characteristics change across a season and impact sprint performance, therefore warranting further research. Methods: Two male national level 100-meter athletes (Athlete 1: 22 years, 1.83 m, 81.1 kg, 100 m time: 10.47 s; Athlete 2: 19 years, 1.82 cm, 75.3 kg, 100 m time: 10.81 s) completed 12 and 11 force-velocity assessments, respectively, using electronic timing gates. Sprint mechanical characteristics were derived from 30-meter maximal sprint efforts using split times (i.e., 0–10 m, 0–20 m, 0–30 m) whereas step kinematics were established from 100-meter competition performance using video analysis. Results: Between the preparation (PREP) and competition (COMP) phase, Athlete 1 showed significantly large within-athlete effects for relative maximal power (P_MAX), theoretical maximal velocity (v₀), maximum ratio of force (RF_MAX), maximal velocity (V_MAX), and split time from 0 to 20 m and 0 to 30 m (−1.70 ≤ ES ≥ 1.92, p ≤ 0.05). Athlete 2 reported significant differences with large effects for relative maximal force (F₀) and RF_MAX only (ES: ≤ −1.46, p ≤ 0.04). In the PREP phase, both athletes reported almost perfect correlations between F₀, P_MAX and 0–20 m (r = −0.99, p ≤ 0.01), however in the COMP phase, the relationships between mechanical characteristics and split times were more individual. Competition performance in the 100-meter sprint (10.64 ± 0.24 s) showed a greater reliance on step length (r ≥ −0.72, p ≤ 0.001) than step frequency to achieve faster performances. The minimal detectable change (%) across mechanical variables ranged from 1.3 to 10.0% while spatio-temporal variables were much lower, from 0.94 to 1.48%, with Athlete 1 showing a higher ‘true change’ in performance across the season compared to Athlete 2. Conclusions: The estimated sprint force-velocity data collected across a training year may provide insight to practitioners about the underpinning mechanical characteristics which affect sprint performance during specific phases of training, plus how a periodized training design may enhance sprint force-velocity characteristics and performance outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Mechanical Performance Determinants in Running)